/V  4*4  •h'- 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 

BY 


F.  H.  NEWELL. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/hydrographyofariOOnewe 


CONTENTS. 


Hydrographic  measurements  and  irrigation 

The  arid  regions 

Hydrographic  data 

Deficiency  of  water 

Increase  of  water  duty 

Water  storage 

Relative  amount  of  flood  waters 

Time  of  floods 

Intensity  of  floods 

Rainfall  and  river  flow 

Points  of  maximum  utility 

Classification  of  drainage  hasins 

Humidity  and  irrigation 

Evaporation  observations 

Results  of  stream  measurements 

Upper  Missouri  and  Yellowstone  Basins 

Platte  Basin ; 

Arkansas  Basin 

Rio  Grande  Basin 

Topography  and  elevations 

Annual  and  monthly  rainfall 

The  Colorado  district  of  the  Rio  Grande 

San  Luis  Valley 

Irrigation  practice 

The  Taos  district  of  the  Rio  Grande 

Tres  Piedras  Mesa 

Embudo  gauging  station 

Espanola  Valley 

The  Chama  district 

Santa  Ee  district  

Albuquerque  district 

Tributaries  below  the  Chama 

Santa  Fe  and  adjacent  streams 

Jemez  River 

Puerco  River 

R6sum6  of  water  supply 

Mesas  along  the  Rio  Grande 

Mesilla  Valley 

Gypsum  Plains  district 

Pecos  River 

General  topograj>hy  

Climate  and  water  supply 

Upper  tributaries 

215 


Page. 

219 

219 

221 

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223 

224 

227 

228 
230 

230 

231 

232 
234 

234 

235 

236 
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256 

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258 
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270 
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279 
281 
282 
282 

283 

284 


344433 


216 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 


Rio  Grande  Basin — Continued. 

Pecos  River — Continued. 

Lower  tributaries  in  New  Mexico 286 

Agriculture  along  tlie  Pecos 287 

Irrigation  works  on  the  Pecos 288 

Colorado  River  drainage  basin 290 

The  Gila  Basin 292 

Topography  and  altitudes 292 

Agricultural  lands 295 

Duty  of  water - 296 

Water  storage 298 

Rainfall 299 

Upper  Gila  district 302 

San  Pedro  district 303 

Middle  Gila  district 305 

Verde  district 309 

Upper  Salt  district 310 

Lower  Salt  district «• 311 

Lower  Gila  district , 314 

Agua  Fria  and  Hassayampa  districts 315 

Santa  Cruz  district 315 

Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  basins 316 

Kern  River 319 

Tule  River 319 

Kaweah  River 320 

Kings  River 320 

San  Joaquin  River 321 

Merced  River 322 

Tuolumne  River 322 

Mokelumne  River 323 

Lower  San  Joaquin  River 323 

The  Great  Basin 324 

Truckee  River 324 

Carson  River 325 

Salt  Lake  Basin  325 

Bear  River 325 

Bear  Lake 327 

Lower  Bear  River 329 

Cache  Valley 330 

Ogden  and  Weber  Rivers 334 

Utah  Lake  drainage 334 

Sevier  River 339 

Snake  River  drainage 344 

Discharge  tables 345 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page. 

Pl.  LVIII.  Index  map  of  river  measurements 222 

LIX.  Diagram  of  monthly  river  flow  and  rainfall 226 

LX.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  West  Gallatin  River  and  Red 

Rock  Creek,  Montana 228 

LXI.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Madison  River,  Montana 230 

LXII.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Missouri  River,  Montana 232 

LXIII.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Sun  River,  Montana 234 

LXIV.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Yellowstone  River,  Montana  . . 236 

LXV.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Cache  la  Poudre,  Colorado, 

1884  to  1891  238 

LXVI.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  upper  tributaries  of  the  Arkan- 
sas River,  Colorado,  1890 240 

LXV1I.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Arkansas  River  at  Canyon  City, 

Colorado,  1888  to  1891 242 

LXVIII.  Map  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  Pecos  basins 244 

LXIX.  Earth  columns  near  station  at  Embudo,  New  Mexico 246 

LXX.  Diagram  of  monthly  rainfall  in  the  Rio  Grande  Basin 248 

LXXI.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Rio  Grande  at  Del  Norte,  Colo- 
rado   250 

LXXII.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Rio  Grande  at  Embudo,  New 

Mexico 256 

LXXIII.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Rio  Grande  at  El  Paso,  Texas.  280 
LXXIV.  Diagram  of  gauge  height  of  the  Colorado  River  at  Yuma,  Arizona, 

1880  to  1891  290 

LXXV.  Map  of  the  Gila  Basin,  Arizona 292 

LXXVI.  Diagram  of  monthly  rainfall  in  the  Gila  Basin,  Arizona 300 

LXXVII.  View  of  the  Hassayampa  Reservoir,  Arizona 302 

LXXVIII.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Gila  River,  Arizona 306 

LXXIX.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Salt  River,  Arizona 308 

LXXX.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Kern  River,  California,  1879  to 

1882 310 

LXXXI.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Kaweah  River,  California,  1879 

to  1882 312 

LXXXII.  Diagram  of  daily  gauge  height  of  the  Kings  River,  California, 

1880  to  1891 314 

LXXXI1I.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  upper  San  Joaquin  River,  Cali- 
fornia, 1879  to  1882 316 

LXXXIV.  Diagram  of  daily  gauge  height  of  the  upper  San  Joaquin  River, 

California,  1880  to  1891 318 

LXXXV.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Merced  River,  California, 

1879  to  1882  320 

217 


218 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page. 

Pl.  LXXXVI.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Tuolumne  River,  California, 

1879  to  1882  322 

LXXXVII.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Mokelumne  River,  Califor- 
nia, 1879  to  1882 322 

LXXXVIII.  Diagram  of  daily  gauge  height  of  the  lower  San  Joaquin  River, 

California,  1880  to  1891  322 

LXXXIX.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Truckee  and  Little  Truckee 

Rivers  at  Boca,  California,  and  of  Prosser  Creek 324 

XC.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Truckee  River  at  Vista,  Ne- 
vada   324 

XCI.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Carson  River  at  Empire, 

Nevada,  aud  of  the  East  and  West  forks  of  the  Carson 324 

XCII.  Map  of  the  Bear  River  drainage  basin 326 

XCIII.  View  of  the  Bear  River  Canyon,  Utah 328 

XCI  V.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Bear  River  at  Battle  Creek, 

Idaho 330 

XCV.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Bear  River  at  Collinston, 

Utah 332 

XCVI.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Ogden  River,  Utah 336 

XCVII.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Weber  River,  Utah 336 

XCVIII.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  American  Fork  and  Spanish 

Fork  rivers,  Utah 338 

XCIX.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Provo  River,  Utah 340 

C.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Sevier  River,  Utah 342 

CI.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  Henry  Fork,  Idaho 344 

CII.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Falls  and  Teton  rivers, 

Idaho 344 

CIII.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Snake  River,  at  Eagle  Rock, 

Idaho 344 

CIV.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Owyhee  River,  Oregon 344 

CV.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Malheur  River,  Oregon 344 

CVI.  Diagram  of  daily  discharge  of  the  Weiser  River,  Idaho 344 

Fig.  223.  Diagram  of  annual  rainfall  in  the  Rio  Grande  Basin 244 

224.  Diagram  illustrating  sediment  measurements  at  Embudo,  New 

Mexico 258 

225.  An  acequia  at  Roswell,  New  Mexico 289 

226.  Diagram  of  annual  rainfall  in  the  Gila  Basin 300 

227.  Diagram  of  the  daily  gauge  height  of  the  Tule  River,  Califor- 

nia, 1879  and  1880 319 

228.  Diagram  of  daily  gauge  height  of  the  Tuolumne  River,  Califor- 

nia, 1890  and  1891  322 

229.  Diagram  of  fluctuations  of  Utah  Lake 336 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


By  F.  H.  Newell. 


HYDROGRAPHIC  MEASUREMENTS  AND  IRRIGATION. 

The  hydrographic  investigations  of  the  Geological  Survey  consist  of 
measurements  of  the  water  flowing  in  the  rivers  or  stored  in  the  lakes 
of  the  United  States,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  of  a study  of  the  laws 
which  govern  the  distribution  and  fluctuation  of  the  water  supply.  The 
greater  part  of  these  investigations  are  made  in  the  western  half  of  the 
United  States,  where  flowing  water  possesses  the  greatest  value  and 
importance.  In  that  part  of  the  country  the  results  of  this  work, 
besides  being  of  scientific  value,  have  direct  practical  application  to 
irrigation  and  to  the  problems  arising  from  the  deficiency  of  water  for 
agriculture  and  other  needs  of  man,  for  upon  the  correct  solution  of 
these  problems  is  dependent  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  this  great 
division  of  the  United  States. 

In  the  eastern  portion  of  the  country  hydrographic  investigations  are 
confined  mainly  to  considerations  of  the  flood  discharge  of  rivers,  for 
here  the  water  supply  is  usually  ample  for  all  needs,  and  public  interest 
is  drawn  to  such  subjects  only  through  an  excess  of  water  so  great  as 
to  be  destructive.  In  the  western  part  of  the  United  States,  however, 
the  amount  of  water  at  low  stages  is  the  object  of  chief  solicitude,  and 
all  the  fluctuations  are  watched  with  care,  for  agricultural  success  or 
failure  follows  the  prevalence  of  high  or  low  water. 

THE  ARID  REGIONS. 

Over  a large  portion,  perhaps  one-lialf,  of  the  continent  of  North 
America  the  rainfall  is  too  small  to  support  those  forms  of  vegetation 
upon  which  man  depends  mainly  for  his  supply  of  food.  This  great 
area,  marked  by  a scanty  plant  life,  lies  in  a general  north  and  south 
direction,  beginning  in  high  latitudes,  where  the  low  temperature  for- 
bids the  growth  of  many  species  of  plant  life,  and  continues  through 
the  United  States  and  into  Mexico  till  cut  off  by  the  belt  of  tropical 
rains.  The  eastern  border  of  this  region  of  droughts  is  usually  taken  for 
convenience  as  coinciding  with  the  one-liundredth  meridian,  and  from 
this  as  the  eastern  limit  it  extends  to  the  mountain  ranges  bordering 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  This  aridity  of  climate  lias  a fundamental  influence 

219 


220 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


upon  the  appearance  of  the  country  and  upon  the  occupation  of  its 
inhabitants.  There  is  perhaps  no  natural  classification  under  which 
will  fall  more  groups  of  facts  than  that  of  the  division  of  the  United 
States  into  these  two  great  regions,  the  humid  and  the  arid,  for  in  them 
many  of  the  political  and  social  customs,  as  wel  1 as  agriculture,  must 
be  radically  different. 

In  this  vast  area,  containing  great  deposits  of  mineral  wealth,  and 
embracing  agricultural  land  as  rich  as  any  on  the  globe,  since  the  sup- 
ply of  moisture  is  too  small  for  the  needs  of  man,  the  examination  of 
all  features  which  modify  the  water  supply  and  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  of  its  present  distribution  and  character  have  been  recog- 
nized as  being  of  great  importance,  for  it  is  acknowledged  that,  although 
the  water  supply  is  at  best  scanty,  its  future  use  and  efficiency  can  be 
greatly  increased  by  a more  intelligent  utilization  of  the  amount  at 
present  available. 

There  is  thus  no  investigation  which  bears  more  fundamentally  upon 
the  complete  development  of  the  resources  of  this  great  region  than  this 
careful  examination  and  a recording  of  facts  which  are  now  known,  to- 
gether with  a study  of  the  influences  which  may  lead  to  a more  thorough 
and  economical  employment  of  the  waters.  With  our  present  informa- 
tion a report  on  these  facts  can  not  claim  to  be  complete,  but  it  is  rather 
an  introduction  to  the  subject,  which,  while  revealing  the  deficiency  of 
our  knowledge,  demonstrates  the  great  necessity  of  more  careful  and 
continued  observations  in  the  same  line. 

The  cause  of  the  aridity  of  this  vast  area  is  traceable  primarily  to  the 
general  circulation  of  the  atmosphere  and  to  the  shape  and  relief  of  the 
continent.  This  is  perhaps  best  put  by  Ferrel  in  his  “Popular  Treatise 
on  the  Winds,”  page  183,  in  which  he  states: 

If  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth  were  that  of  the  ocean,  or  any  smooth  homogene- 
ous surface,  the  calm  belts,  the  rain  belt,  and  the  dry  zones  would  extend  without 
interruption  entirely  around  the  globe  with  the  same  regularity  which  is  observed 
upon  the  oceans,  and  everywhere  the  same  climatic  conditions  would  exist  on  the 
same  parallels  of  latitude.  But  on  account  of  the  influence  of  mountain  ranges  in 
deflecting  the  currents  of  the  general  circulation  of  the  atmosphere  great  diversities 
of  (dimate  are  found  in  different  places  on  the  same  parallels. 

It  is  thus  on  account  of  the  topographic  features  of  the  continent,  of 
the  elevation  and  distribution  of  the  mountain  masses,  that  this  arid  land 
stretches  in  its  general  longitudinal  direction  instead  of  crossing  the 
continent  from  west  to  east.  Thus  a full  knowledge  of  the  climate,  and 
especially  of  the  distribution  of  the  rainfall  not  only  in  restricted  lo- 
calities but  on  the  continent  as  a whole,  is  largely  dependent  upon  a 
correct  understanding  and  representation  of  the  general  topographic 
features,  for  it  is  these  which  both  in  a broad  and  also  in  a local  way 
are  primary  factors  among  causes  which  make. a country  inhabitable  and 
prosperous.  Therefore,  in  this  discussion  of  the  hydrography  of  the 
arid  lands,  considerable  space  has  been  devoted  to  descriptions  of  topo- 
graphic features  and  local  peculiarities,  in  order  that  all  possible  light 
might  be  cast  upon  seeming  anomalies. 


NEWELL.] 


RIVER  GAUGINGS. 


221 


HYDROGRAPHIC  DATA. 

Upon  navigable  rivers  in  the  United  States  measurements  and  other 
examinations  have  been  and  are  being  made  under  the  direction  of  the 
Chief  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army,  all  efforts  being  directed  toward  an 
improvement  of  navigation,  the  physical  and  geological  problems  receiv- 
ing less  consideration.  The  character  of  the  work  is  thus  entirely  dif- 
ferent in  scope  and  results  from  that  undertaken  by  the  Geological 
Survey;  but  many  of  the  details,  especially  of  measurements  of  floods, 
are  of  great  value  in  the  physical  investigations  carried  on  by  the  latter. 

Beyond  the  field  work  of  these  two  organizations  of  the  General  Gov- 
ernment a large  amount  of  hydrographic  information  has  been  col- 
lected at  various  times,  and  many  measurements  of  flowing  waters  have 
been  made  by  engineers  in  the  employ  of  the  States,  municipalities,  or 
corporations,  and  this  data,  much  of  which  is  unpublished,  would,  if  all 
could  be  brought  together,  prove  of  great  value.  For  example,  the 
state  engineering  department  of  California  has  published  data  con- 
cerning the  principal  rivers  of  that  state;  the  State  engineers  of  Colo- 
rado have  done  a similar  work  on  a smaller  scale;  the  northern  trans- 
continental survey  also  acquired  many  facts  in  Montana,  Idaho,  and 
adjoining  States,  and  various  exploring  parties  in  all  parts  of  the  West 
have  occasionally  gauged  streams  and  estimated  discharges.  The 
results  of  many  of  these  measurements  will  be  discussed  later,  in  con- 
nection with  descriptions  of  the  various  drainage  basins. 

The  data  collected  from  the  sources  just  mentioned  have  been  reduced 
to  common  units  and  arranged  in  form  convenient  for  making  compari- 
sons, and  as  many  results  as  can  be  obtained  at  this  time  have  been  thus 
brought  together  and  republished  in  condensed  form,  with  brief  explan- 
atory remarks.  On  the  index  map,  PI.  lyiii,  is  shown  the  location  of 
the  principal  drainage  basins  and  the  points  at  which  the  gaugings 
referred  to  in  subsequent  discussions  were  made. 

During  the  year  ending  June  30, 1891,  the  Geological  Survey  received 
reports  of  the  daily  gauge  height  of  many  rivers  of  the  West  at  points 
where  gauging  stations  were  previously  established  and  discharge  meas- 
urements made,  and  by  this  means  the  daily  mean  discharge  at  these 
several  localities  has  been  computed.  These  discharges  afford  a com- 
parison with  those  obtained  in  previous  years,  and  add  greatly  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  regime  of  these  rivers.  On  subsequent  pages  the 
results  of  these  computations,  are  given  and  on  the  accompanying 
plates  the  daily  discharges  for  various  stations  are  shown  in  graphic 
form.  In  connection  with  these,  the  data  obtained  from  other  sources 
have  been  introduced  in  geographical  order. 

DEFICIENCY  OF  WATER. 

As  to  the  practical  bearings  of  these  investigations  it  is  sufficient  to 
state  that  the  area  cultivated  by  irrigation  in  most  drainage  basins  of 
the  arid  region  is  far  larger  than  can  be  covered  by  the  present  water 


222 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


supply,  and  each  year  the  crops  upon  thousands  of  acres  in  various 
localities  are  injured  or  lost  for  lack  of  water  at  critical  times.  Besides 
this,  there  is  a still  greater  acreage  which  can  he  reached  by  canal  sys- 
tems constructed  or  projected,  including  bodies  of  land  as  good  as  that 
now  under  cultivation  and  sometimes  better,  and  in  addition  to  these 
irrigated  aud  irrigable  lands  there  are  in  many  parts  of  the  arid  region 
plains  of  arable  land  so  vast  that  by  no  possibility  can  they  ever  be 
brought  under  irrigation.  Thus  as  a whole  the  water  supply  can  never 
be  conserved  too  carefully,  for  there  will  always  be  fertile  lands  in  ex- 
cess of  that  supply. 

With  greater  economy  in  the  use  of  the  present  available  water,  a 
greater  acreage  each  year  can  be  successfully  cultivated,  but  there  will 
soon  be  a limit  to  the  slow  growth  in  this  manner,  for  under  ordinary 
circumstances  it  will  happen  that  each  year  the  amount  of  land  suc- 
cessfully cultivated  must  fluctuate  with  the  variations  of  water  in  the 
rivers;  in  years  of  large  flow,  the  farmers  will  be  prosperous,  while, 
when  droughts  occur,  a certain  portion  of  the  crops  will  be  lost,  if  de- 
pendence is  placed  wholly  upon  the  unregulated  flow  of  the  streams. 

There  are,  however,  as  above  mentioned,  floods  at  irregular  intervals 
bringing  with  them  great  quantities  of  water.  It  has  occurred  to 
thousands  of  individuals,  on  seeing  on  the  one  hand  rich  soil  lying 
barren  for  lack  of  moisture  and  on  the  other  destructive  torrents,  that 
by  the  proper  conservation  of  these  floods,  by  saving  the  waste  waters 
in  times  of  need,  not  only  will  the  farmer  be  able  to  raise  all  his  crops, 
but,  in  addition,  great  tracts  of  land  now  unproductive  may  be  made 
sources  of  wealth  to  the  community.  It  is  only  a question  of  time,  it 
may  be  live  years  or  ftfty,  when  dams  will  be  built  to  hold  back  this 
flood  water,  but  the  building  of  these  will  proceed  slowly,  for  the  con- 
ditions of  success  in  such  enterprises  are  entirely  different  from  those 
pertaining  to  other  irrigation  projects. 

There  can  be  nothing  of  an  experimental,  temporary  nature  in  de- 
signing storage  works  as  there  is  in  the  case  of  diversion  dams  in  rivers 
or  of  canal  works.  They  can  not  be  essentially  changed  or  modified, 
and  the  washing  away  of  one  is  not  a matter  of  loss  to  the  owners  alone, 
as  with  canal  head  works,  but  may  involve  the  destruction  of  lives  and 
property  in  distant  localities.  There  are  in  the  history  of  the  last  few 
years  too  many  examples  of  this  to  call  for  further  comment,  and  it  is 
now  generally  recognized  that  not  only  must  large  sums  of  money  be 
expended  to  construct  these  storage  dams  securely  and  permanently, 
but  that  a rigid  inspection  must  be  made  by  competent  authorities. 

Before  auy  steps  can  be  made  toward  the  construction  of  such  dams 
their  builders  must  have  ample  and  accurate  information  on  which  to 
base  conclusive  estimates  as  to  the  success  of  the  enterprise.  They 
must  know,  among  other  things,  not  only  that  the  reservoir  thus  cre- 
ated will  be  of  ample  size,  but  that  it  has  a reliable  and  sufficient 
water  supply  and  that  it  will  not  be  exposed  to  floods  which  can  in 
any  combination  of  circumstances  tear  it  down. 


LIBRARY 
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UNIVERSITY  Of  ILLINOIS 


U S GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 


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LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.] 


DUTY  OF  WATER. 


223 


In  most  of  the  drainage  basins  where  the  typography  is  such  that  the 
floods  are  sudden  and  of  short  duration,  the  actual  amount  of  water 
discharged  by  rivers  is  in  general  greatly  overestimated,  and  before 
any  notable  reservoir  can  be  made  the  question  arises  as  to  whether 
there  is  enough  water  to  fill  it.  Our  information  on  this  point,  though 
it  is  one  which  deeply  concerns  these  basins,  is  unfortunately  meager. 
The  importance  of  the  case,  however,  justifies  a careful  examination 
of  the  known  facts  and  their  publication.  It  is  hoped  that  a discus- 
sion of  these  data  may  serve,  perhaps,  as  a foundation  for  a protracted 
examination  in  the  future,  when  there  is  a more  general  appreciation  of 
the  fact  that  the  permanent  agricultural  growth  of  this  land  must  await 
the  completion  of  a long  series  of  such  careful  observations. 

INCREASE  OF  WATER  DUTY. 

Every  improvement  which  tends  to  greater  economy  in  the  use  of 
the  present  water  supply  adds  ultimately  to  the  acreage  which  can  be 
cultivated.  Water  is  wastefully  used  in  many  instances,  there  being  a 
lack  of  economy  in  the  methods  of  conducting  it  to  the  fields  and 
in  applying  it  to  the  soil.  There  are  no  inducements  toward  economy 
and  no  unity  of  action  by  which  economy  can  be  enforced.  Each  canal 
company  or  association  of  canal-owners  is  content  if  sufficient  water 
can  be  procured  to  cover  its  own  claim,  regardless  of  the  possible  rights 
of  others.  In  a case  where  a company  sells  water  there  is  rarely  any 
attempt  to  enforce  economy,  or  inducement  held  out  to  users  of  the 
water  to  save  it  or  make  it  cover  the  greatest  possible  extent  of  land. 

The  common  method  of  irrigating,  especially  when  used  on  alfalfa 
and  other  forage  crops  and  the  small  grains,  is  that  of  flooding,  the 
water  being  caused  to  spread  over  the  ground  to  an  average  depth  of 
2 to  3 inches  or  more.  For  other  crops  it  is  allowed  to  run  along  the 
furrows  until  the  ground  between  each  two  furrows  is  saturated.  For 
fruit  trees  or  vineyards  small  trenches  are  plowed  or  dug  leading  from 
the  lateral  or  small  distributing  ditch  to  each  tree,  the  water  being 
allowed  to  settle  around  the  roots  of  the  tree  or  vine. 

Experience,  however,  is  gradually  teaching  the  farmer  that  better 
success  can  often  be  obtained  with  small  amounts  of  water  intelligently 
applied  than  with  greater,  and  also  that  as  irrigation  extends  less  and 
less  water  is  required  on  many  soils,  this  being  due  perhaps  to  a 
general  raising  of  the  moisture  in  the  ground  or  to  a clogging  of  many 
points  of  escape.  The  result  is  that  less  water  per  acre  is  used  and 
needed  on  the  older  lands  than  on  the  newer. 

The  area  of  land  which  can  be  irrigated  by  a given  quantity  of  water 
is  known  for  convenience  as  u the  duty  of  the  water.”  The  unit  in 
general  use  is  the  second-foot,  or  cubic  foot  per  second,  that  is,  a quan- 
tity of  water  equaling  a stream  1 foot  wide  and  1 foot  deep,  flowing 
at  an  average  velocity  of  1 foot  every  second.  From  what  has  been 
said,  it  is  obvious  that  the  duty  of  water  varies  much,  being  greater  on 


224 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


old  land  tlian  on  new,  and  differing  with  the  soils,  as  well  as  the  skill 
and  customs  of  the  irrigators. 

There  are  unfortunately  no  reliable  or  detailed  measurements  to 
show  what  the  actual  water  duty  is.  A number  of  estimates  have  been 
made,  none  of  which  agree  very  closely.  Powell 1 in  his  first  book  on 
the  arid  lands  gave  the  average  water  duty  in  Utah,  under  good  con- 
ditions, as  reaching  100  acres  to  the  second-foot.  The  average  of  a 
number  of  estimates  of  the  amount  actually  used  in  Utah,  under  or- 
dinary conditions  and  with  little  skill,  was  a trifle  over  two-thirds  of 
this,  or  about  70  acres.  In  Wyoming  and  Idaho,  where  water  was 
plentiful,  land  new,  and  irrigators  unskilled,  the  duty  was  from  30  to  40 
acres  only.  In  Arizona  and  California  calculations  have  been  made 
that  with  care  a second-foot  can  be  made  to  cover  120  acres,  or  even 
more. 

Another  way  of  expressing  the  duty  of  water  is  in  acre-feet — the 
quantity  of  water  covering  an  acre  1 foot  in  depth — 1 acre-foot  thus 
being  equivalent  to  43,500  cubic  feet.  Thus  a water  duty  of  1J  acre- 
feet  to  the  acre  means  that  during  the  course  of  the  irrigating  season  a 
quantity  of  water  has  been  applied  equal  to  a depth  of  1£  feet  over  the 
ground.  Some  such  arbitrarily  selected  duty  of  water  is  taken  in  all 
discussions  as  to  the  utility  of  water-storage  systems,  in  order  to  com- 
pute the  relation  between  their  capacity  and  efficiency. 

It  is  evident  that  the  duty  of  water  will  depend  considerably  upon 
the  point  at  which  water  is  measured.  If,  for  example,  water  is  meas- 
ured when  entering  the  field  where  used,  a higher  duty  will  result  than 
is  found  when  the  water  is  measured  at  the  head  of  the  canal,  for  in  the 
latter  case  a certain  quantity  is  lost  by  seepage  and  evaporation  before 
it  can  reach  the  land  on  which  it  is  to  be  employed.  Further,  a still 
less  duty  is  shown  if  the  water  is  measured  in  the  river  before  entering 
the  canals,  unless,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  a certain  amount  returns 
to  the  river  by  seepage,  to  be  used  over  again  by  land  below. 

WATER  STORAGE. 

Water  storage  for  purposes  of  agriculture  is  comparatively  new  to  the 
Arid  Regions  of  the  West,  and  is  practiced  to  a small  extent  relatively 
to  the  whole  area  needing  it.  In  order  then  to  obtain  certain  definite 
ideas  concerning  relative  costs  and  values,  it  would  be  useful  to  compare 
this  with  water  storage  as  practiced  in  many  parts  of  the  country  for 
municipal  supply.  The  greater  number  of  cities  of  the  United  States 
own  or  control  reservoirs  for  holding  the  water,  either  for  purposes  of 
clearing  it  or  as  a safeguard  against  accident. 

One  of  the  most  important  conceptions  in  connection  with  a compari- 
son between  municipal  supply  and  that  for  agricultural  purposes  is  the 
vastly  greater  quantities  needed  and  the  less  value  of  water  for  the  latter 
use.  The  amount  which  is  used  in  irrigation  is  so  much  greater  than 

1 Reports  on  tlie  lands  of  the  Arid  Region  of  the  United  States,  J.  W.  Powell,  2d  ed.,  1879,  p.  84. 


HE  WELL.] 


WATER  STORAGE. 


225 


that  needed  by  a city  that  it  is  difficult  at  first  to  comprehend  the  dif- 
ference, and  many  persons  have  been  disappointed  in  their  attempts  at 
storage  by  failing  to  take  into  account  in  their  original  estimates  the 
losses  and  waste  which  necessarily  take  place  in  connection  with  the  free 
use  of  the  water  for  agriculture. 

If  it  is  assumed  that  100  gallons  per  day  is  ample  for  each  inhabitant 
of  a small  city,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  1 acre  foot  is  sufficient  to  irrigate 
1 acre,  a comparison  can  be  made  between  the  relative  values  of  these 
two  water  supplies.  One  acre-foot  equals  43,560  cubic  feet,  or  about 

326.000  gallons.  Neglecting  in  both  cases  losses  from  evaporation,  this 

320.000  gallons  on  the  above  basis  would  supply  9 persons  with  water 
for  a year.  In  other  words,  1 acre-foot  of  stored  water  would  either 
irrigate  1 acre,  or,  if  carried  to  a city,  would  supply  9 persons,  and  1 ,000 
acre-feet  would  water  1,000  acres  or  supply  a city  of  9,000  inhabitants; 
but  now  if  we  compare  the  relative  value  of  the  property  concerned  the 
difference  is  at  once  apparent.  The  value  of  the  irrigated  land,  at  a 
liberal  estimate,  can  not  ordinarily  be  placed  over  $50  per  acre,  while  the 
valuation  of  city  property,  taking  the  average  for  the  United  States  for 
this  number  of  inhabitants,  would  be  about  $5,000,000;  that  is  to  say, 
the  property  which  must  bear  the  expense  of  storing  water  is  in  the  case 
of  agriculture  $50,000,  and  in  the  case  of  the  city,  needing  the  same 
amount,  one  hundred  times  as  great,  or  $5,000,000.  Taking  these  facts 
alone  into  consideration,  it  would  seem  that  the  city  can  afford  to  pay 
a vastly  greater  sum  for  storage,  and  can  make  use  of  opportunities  for 
storage  which  are  far  too  expensive  for  rural  districts. 

There  are  many  minor  considerations  which  modify  the  above  com- 
parison, but  it  is  sufficient  to  demonstrate  the  general  fact  that  for  agri- 
cultural success  water  storage  must  be  very  cheap  and  of  enormous 
capacity.  The  farmer  can  not  afford  to  take  the  same  chances  of  suc- 
cess or  to  repair  injuries  to  the  same  extent  that  a city  can,  so  that  far 
greater  caution,  engineering  skill,  and  foresight  must  be  employed  than 
in  the  case  of  our  ordinary  municipal  supplies. 

In  preliminary  discussions  of  water  storage  for  purposes  of  irrigation 
one  of  the  most  important  facts  to  be  borne  in  mind  is  that  success  does 
not.  depend  directly  upon  the  quantity,  distribution,  or  fluctuations  of 
the  rainfall.  A full  and  exact  knowledge  of  this  subject  is  of  course 
important  and  valuable  as  affording  collateral  data,  but  since  the  amount 
of  water  flowing  in  the  stream  is  remotely  affected  by  variations  in  rain- 
fall, these  data  can  not  be  depended  upon  primarily.  Comparing  the 
rainfall  and  the  snowfall,  it  may  be  said  that  precipitation  in  the  form 
of  snow  is  of  greater  importance  than  the  rain  to  irrigation  schemes, 
for  the  useful  floods  of  most  rivers  are  due  rather  to  melting  snow  than  to 
rainstorms.  The  time  of  the  year  at  which  snow  falls,  whether  early  or 
late  in  winter,  and  the  temperature  of  early  spring,  have  great  influence 
upon  the  quantity  and  intensity  of  floods.  This  is  seen  on  the  various 
plates  of  discharge  referred  to  in  the  following  pages.  By  comparing 
12  GEOL.,  PT.  2 15 


226 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


one  with  another  it  will  be  noted  that  melting  snow  furnishes  the  water 
necessary  for  great  spring  floods,  this  quantity  being  increased  or  dimin- 
ished day  by  day  as  the  temperature  rises  or  falls,  so  much  so  that  iu 
cases  where  the  river  gauging  station  is  near  the  headwaters  of  a stream 
the  diagram  of  river  discharges  to  a certain  extent  would  serve  as  the 
diagram  of  fluctuations  of  temperature. 

PI.  lix  has  been  prepared  to  show,  in  condensed  and  generalized 
form,  the  lack  of  coincidence  between  the  average  discharge  and  the 
mean  annual  rainfall  for  each  month  of  the  year  in  four  widely  separated 
basins.  In  each  of  the  four  diagrams  on  this  plate  the  dotted  line  rep- 
resents the  mean  annual  rainfall,  and  the  solid  line  the  average  height 
or  discharge  of  the  river.  The  months  of  the  year  are  shown  by  vertical 
spaces,  and  horizontal  lines  give  the  height  of  water  or  quantity  of  dis- 
charge and  also  the  depth  of  rain. 

In  the  upper  diagram  the  mean  discharge  of  the  Cache  la  Poudre, 
above  Fort  Collins,  for  all  years  during  which  measurements  have  been 
made,  is  compared  with  the  mean  rainfall  at  Denver,  Colorado,  the 
assumption  being  made  that  rainfall  at  this  station  follows  as  a general 
rule  the  fluctuations  within  the  basin  of  the  Cache  la  Poudre.  It  will 
be  seeu  that  the  maximum  amount  of  rainfall  is  in  May,  while  the  maxi- 
mum river  flow  is  in  the  early  part  of  June.  The  rainfall  in  June 
decreases,  and  then  increases  slightly  in  July  and  August. 

On  the  second  diagram  the  mean  discharge  of  the  Rio  Grande  at 
Embudo,  New  Mexico,  is  compared  with  the  mean  annual  rainfall  at 
Santa  Fe,  although  it  is  probable  that  the  rainfall  in  the  upper  part  of 
this  basin  has  a habit  intermediate  between  that  at  Denver  and  at  Santa 
Fe.  The  river  at  this  point  reaches  its  maximum  discharge  earlier  in 
the  year  than  does  the  Cache  la  Poudre,  and  the  rainfall,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  its  maximum  in  the  early  part  of  August. 

In  the  third  diagram  the  mean  gauge  height  of  the  Colorado  River 
at  Yuma,  Arizona,  is  shown  in  connection  with  the  rainfall  at  Prescott, 
Arizona.  The  maximum  river  height  is  reached  in  the  early  part  of 
June  at  the  time  of  minimum  rainfall  in  the  basin,  the  maximum  rain- 
fall occurring  about  two  months  later,  and  usually  causing  little  if  any 
fluctuation  in  the  height  of  the  river. 

The  low'est  diagram  on  the  plate  shows  the  average  height  of  the 
lower  San  Joaquin  River  in  conjunction  with  the  mean  rainfall  at 
Modesto,  California.  Here  the  maximum  discharge  occurs  at  about  the 
same  time  as  that  of  Cache  la  Poudre  Creek  and  of  the  Colorado  River, 
while  the  maximum  rainfall  is  about  the  first  of  January. 

These  four  dotted  lines  of  rainfall  typify  fairly  well  the  distribution 
of  rainfall  in  the  arid  region;  on  the  east  the  maximum  occurring  in  the 
summer,  on  the  south  the  period  of  minimum  rain  occurring  in  May  and 
June,  and  followed  by  heavy  rain  in  July  and  August,  at  the  time  of  the 
greatest  droughts  in  California,  The  rivers,  however,  excepting  in  the 
case  of  those  depending  wholly  upon  local  storms,  have  their  regular 
spring  floods  independent  of  the  distribution  of  rain. 


U.  S.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  LIX 


Jan.  Feb.  Mar.  Apr.  May.  June.  July  Aug.  Sept.  Oct.  Nov.  Dec. 


Depth  of 
rainfall. 


2 inches. 


1 inch. 


2 inches. 


1 inch. 


3 inches. 


2 inches. 


1 inch. 


3 inches. 


2 inches. 


1 inch. 


AVERAGE  MONTHLY  RIVER  FLOW  AND  RAINFALL. 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.] 


QUANTITIES  IN  FLOODS. 


227 


RELATIVE  AMOUNT  OF  FLOOD  WATERS. 

In  any  discussion  of  hydrographic  data,  and  especially  its  bearing  on 
water  conservation,  one  of  the  facts  of  primary  importance  is  the  rela- 
tion between  the  amount  of  water  carried  in  floods  and  in  low  stages; 
in  short,  whether  the  river  discharges  in  flood  an  amount  greater  by 
many  times  than  that  discharged  during  the  remainder  of  the  year,  or 
whether  the  increase  is  comparatively  small.  For  instance,  taking 
a practical  illustration,  along  most  of  the  rivers  of  the  West,  as  pre- 
viously stated,  is  an  area  of  land  greater  than  can  be  irrigated  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  crop  season,  and  with  an  unregulated  flow  the  area 
of  land  to  be  cultivated  is  governed  by  the  low-water  discharge  of  the 
river;  and  furthermore,  all  of  this  low  water  has  in  most  cases  been  long 
ago  appropriated.  To  bring  more  land  under  cultivation  it  is  essen- 
tial, after  practicing  economy  of  the  waters  now  available,  to  store  some 
of  the  flood  waters,  and  hold  these  until  later  in  the  season  for  use  in 
time  of  need. 

The  question  of  primary  importance,  then,  is  the  amount  of  flood 
water  relative  to  the  ordinary  discharge — whether  it  is  sufficiently 
great  to  insure  the  success  of  storage  works,  and  in  time  repay  the  cost 
of  their  construction  by  permanence  of  supply;  or,  on  the  other  hand, 
whether  the  floods  are  so  small  in  amount  or  irregular  in  occurrence  as 
to  be  of  doubtful  value.  It  is  really  upon  the  flood  waters  that  the 
greatest  dependence  for  storage  must  be  placed,  for  in  many  parts  of 
the  country  the  low- water  discharge  being  appropriated  and  used  dur- 
ing the  most  important  season  of  the  year,  little  reliance  can  be  had 
upon  this  low-water  flow  during  the  remaining  seasons. 

After  the  irrigating  season  is  over,  the  amount  of  water  flowing  in 
the  streams  in  the  interval  between  that  time  and  the  beginning  of  the 
floods  is  usually  small.  In  some  parts  of  the  country,  especially  in  the 
south,  the  irrigating  season  extends  practically  throughout  the  year, 
and  the  water  is  used  on  the  small  grains,  trees,  and  gardens,  or  for  sat- 
urating the  ground  for  the  purpose  of  raising  forage  plants,  when  not 
otherwise  needed.  In  many  places,  too,  where  the  irrigating  season  is 
short,  and  extends  only  from  four  to  six  mouths,  the  water  supply  after 
the  end  of  the  irrigating  season  and  between  that  time  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  floods  is  so  small,  or  of  such  an  uncertain  character,  as  to 
be  of  doubtful  value  for  storage  purposes,  the  evaporation  in  many 
cases  being  sufficient  to  prevent  an  accumulation  of  water  in  any  large 
storage  basin.  In  short,  then,  it  is  to  the  amount  and  certainty  of  the 
flood  waters  that  attention  must  be  given  in  considerations  of  storage. 

The  relation  between  the  quantity  in  flood  and  in  low  water  is  shown 
graphically  upon  the  discharge  diagrams  or  hydrograplis  of  the  various 
rivers,  and  it  is  instructive  to  compare  these.  The  most  conspicuous 
feature  is  the  difference  in  character  between  the  floods  in  rivers  which 
receive  their  main  water  supply  from  melting  snow  and  in  rivers  which 
depend  wholly  or  in  great  part  upon  the  rainfall.  In  the  first  case,  as 


228 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


shown  by  the  hydrographs  in  the  Upper  Missouri  basin,  the  flood  is  seen 
to  consist  of  a gradual  continuous  rise,  and  to  increase  in  quantity  un- 
til a maximum  is  reached,  followed  by  an  almost  equally  continuous  de- 
cline. In  the  latter  case,  for  example  in  the  Gila  basin,  the  floods  are 
of  an  exceedingly  irregular  character,  coming  at  any  stage  of  the  river 
and  passing  off  rapidly,  the  river  falling  immediately  again  to  low  stage. 

The  following  table  is  given  in  order  to  exhibit  in  concise  manner  the 
relation  between  the  mean  discharge  and  the  quantity  of  water  carried 
in  floods  during  the  years  in  which  measurements  have  been  made. 
In  the  column  at  the  right  is  the  quotient,  obtained  by  dividing  the 
maximum  discharge  by  the  average  quantity  flowing  in  the  stream. 
For  example,  in  the  case  of  the  tirst  river  on  the  list,  the  West  Gal- 
latin, the  maximum  flood  reached  a quantity  four  and  five-tenths  times 
the  average  annual  discharge: 


River. 

Flood 

increase. 

River. 

Flood 

increase. 

4-5 

3 *9 

3 2 

Bear  at  Collinston 

3 -2 

3 6 

( igden 

3 *4 

5-9 

4 4 

2 -3 

] -8 

6 -6 

5 -3 

4 -0 

Rio  Graiule at  Del  Norte 

4-7 

Henry  Fork  of  Snake 

4-4 

6 1 

3 7 

11  -1 

4 ‘3 

12-6 

100  -o 

6 -8 

4 *4 

6 *3 

6-2 

6 -8 

On  looking  down  the  list,  it  will  be  seen  at  a glance  that  on  most  of 
the  rivers  the  flood  has  been  from  four  to  five  times  the  volume  of  the 
average  flow  for  the  year.  The  most  notable  exceptions,  however,  are 
in  the  case  of  the  Bio  Grande  at  El  Paso,  the  Gila,  and  the  Salt,  where 
the  measured  floods  were  over  eleven  or  twelve  times  the  average  flow, 
and  on  the  Salt  Biver  one  hundred  times,  this  latter  case  being  that  of 
the  great  flood  of  February,  1891.  It  is  probable  that  if  the  measure- 
ments were  continued  for  a period  sufficiently  long  a far  greater  flood 
increase  would  be  noted  on  some  of  the  other  streams.  The  three  in- 
stances just  noted,  however,  stand  out  clearly  as  illustrations  of  the 
wide  fluctuations  of  the  rain-fed  rivers  of  the  south. 


TIME  OF  FLOODS. 

The  fact  of  secondary  importance  to  that  of  the  quantity  of  the 
floods  for  storage  is  the  time  at  which  they  occur  and  the  relation 
between  the  duration  of  high  water  and  the  time  of  growing  crops. 
On  most  of  the  rivers  of  the  West  floods  occur  in  the  spring  and  di- 
minish in  early  summer.  On  some  rivers  they  occur  earlier  and  on 
others  later,  depending  largely  upon  the  altitude  of  the  catchment 
basin.  There  is  usually  ample  water  at  the  time  the  crops  are  planted, 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  WEST  GALLATIN  RIVER  AND  OF  RED  ROCK  CREEK,  MONTANA. 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 

10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.  ] 


TIME  OF  FLOODS. 


229 


so  that  there  is  no  trouble  in  giving  a first  watering  to  all  the  land  cul- 
tivated, but  toward  the  end  of  the  season,  when  the  crops  are  maturing, 
the  supply  in  the  river  diminishes,  and  often  a portion  of  the  crop  is  lost 
from  lack  of  water  at  the  critical  time. 

As  a rule  it  may  be  said  that  the  later  the  floods  occur  the  better  for 
the  success  of  crops  and  of  storage  schemes,  for  in  the  latter  case  the 
shorter  is  the  time  during  which  the  water  is  held  and  the  less  will  be 
the  loss  from  evaporation.  On  the  other  hand,  the  earlier  in  the  sea- 
son the  floods  occur  the  less  water  will  be  available  for  crops  and  the 
greater  will  be  the  loss  by  evaporation. 

The  time  is  fast  approaching  when  a large  part  of  the  flood  water, 
excepting  perhaps  in  a few  great  rivers  like  those  of  the  Colorado 
drainage,  will  be  held  by  storage  from  the  early  months  of  the  year  to  July 
and  August.  In  fact,  much  of  this  flood  water  is  now  needed,  for  the 
area  of  tilled  land  in  many  parts  of  the  arid  region  is  too  great  for  the 
present  supply  in  ordinary  seasons,  and  unless  some  unusual  storms 
occur,  valuable  areas  of  crops  are  lost.  Besides  these  areas  tilled, 
there  are  the  tracts  of  fertile  land  so  vast  that  the  amount  under 
cultivation  shrinks  into  insignificance. 

Comparing,  therefore,  the  rivers  in  their  adaptability  for  supplying 
storage  reservoirs  as  regards  the  time  of  flood,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
most  favorable  instances  are  afforded  by  the  streams  of  the  northern 
basins  bounded  by  lofty  mountains,  as,  for-  example,  those  of  the  upper 
Missouri  and  Arkansas  basins,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  streams 
draining  the  basins  of  less  altitude  are  less  favorable  from  this  stand- 
point. 

In  strong  contrast  to  the  rivers  flowing  into  the  Missouri  in  regard 
to  the  time  of  flood  are  those  of  southern  or  lower  basins,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  Gila  and  Salt,  or  the  Malheur  and  Owyhee  in  Oregon.  As 
will  be  seen  at  a glance  at  the  diagrams  for  the  Gila  basin,  the  time  of 
floods  is  very  uncertain,  and  while,  as  a general  rule,  the  floods  are  more 
apt  to  occur  in  certain  months,  yet  they  cannot  be  relied  upon  as  in 
the  case  of  most  northern  rivers.  Water  storage  in  these  rain-fed 
rivers,  therefore,  becomes  more  a matter  of  chance,  and  it  is  not  possible 
to  estimate  within  as  narrow  limits  as  in  the  case  of  the  snow-fed 
streams  the  probable  amount  of  water  to  be  obtained  each  year. 

A comparison  with  the  habits  of  the  rivers  outside  of  the  arid  region, 
as,  for  example,  the  Ohio  or  the  Upper  Mississippi,  shows  strongly  the 
difference  in  the  effect  of  the  rainstorms,  and  illustrates  the  influence 
of  topography  and  climate  upon  the  discharge  of  a stream.  On  one 
extreme,  that  of  the  rivers  in  Arizona,  the  rain  falls  upon  hard  earth  or 
barren  rocks  and  slopes,  which  allow  the  water  to  flow  off  immediately. 
There  is  little  or  no  vegetation  to  check  or  retain  the  water,  and  it  rushes 
down  the  canyons  and  unites  in  the  rivers,  forming  sudden  floods.  On 
the  other  extreme  are  the  rivers  of  the  humid  region,  rising  in  forested 
areas,  where  erosion  has  to  a great  extent  cut  down  the  higher  moun- 


230 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


tains  into  rolling  hills  now  covered  with  vegetation.  The  rain  is  held 
for  a time,  at  least,  by  the  soil,  and  slowly  finds  its  way  to  the  river, 
and  the  flood  rises  gently  and  diminishes  so  gradually  that  the  effect 
of  a heavy  rain  may  be  felt  for  days  or  weeks. 

INTENSITY  OF  FLOODS. 

The  intesity  of  floods — that  is,  the  relation  between  the  quantity  of 
water  and  the  time  during  which  the  flood  occurs — is  involved  in  the 
two  points  above  mentioned.  It  follows  as  a matter  of  course  that  on 
those  rivers  on  which  floods  occur  suddenly  the  rate  of  increase  of 
water  will  be  greatest  and  its  destructive  effects  most  apparent.  In 
proportioning  storage  works  and  canals  for  diversion  of  flood  waters, 
intensity,  as  well  as  quantity  of  flood,  plays  an  important  part,  for,  on 
the  one  hand,  structures  must  be  designed  to  withstand  the  sudden 
impetus  of  floods,  and,  on  the  other,  diversion  channels  or  waste  weirs 
must  be  made  of  extraordinary  size  to  provide  for  the  passage  of  enor- 
mous quantities  of  water  in  a few  hours.  It  is  apparent  that  structures 
to  withstand  the  onset  of  floods,  shown  diagram matically  on  many  of 
the  following  plates,  must  be  proportioned  and  executed  in  a manner 
which,  to  a person  seeing  only  the  low  water,  must  seem  extravagant. 

One  fact  particularly  characteristic  of  the  regions  of  intense  floods  is 
that  river  channels  in  size  and  general  appearance  bear  very  little  ap- 
parent relation  to  the  average  daily  discharge  of  streams  which  flow 
in  them.  In  humid  regions  from  inspection  of  a river  channel  an  en- 
gineer can,  in  general,  form  a valid  opinion  as  to  the  average  amount 
of  water  which  flows  in  it  and  the  probable  extent  of  the  floods,  but 
in  the  arid  region,  especially  in  the  basins  of  lost  rivers,  the  size  of 
channel  is  entirely  out  of  proportion  to  the  amount  of  water  which 
ordinarily  flows  in  it,  due  to  the  extremely  erratic  conditions  which  pre- 
vail. For  years  or  decades  there  may  be  a mere  rill  or  at  places  no 
water  in  sight  in  the  natural  drainage  lines,  when,  by  a sudden  storm  or 
local  “cloud-burst,”  vast  quantities  of  water  will  be  precipitated,  carv- 
ing in  a few  hours  a channel  of  capacity  for  a navigable  river.  Thus  it 
is  that  long  observations  are  required  to  determine  what  may  be  the 
average  flow  of  streams  of  this  class  and  the  quantity  of  water,  if  any, 
which  can  be  depended  upon  from  year  to  year. 

RAINFALL  AND  RIVER  FLOW. 

The  amount  of  water  flowing  in  the  river  each  day  does  not  depend 
directly  upon  the  rainfall  of  the  preceding  days,  but  upon  many  modi- 
fying conditions,  and  a storm,  although  widespread  and  reported  at  all 
stations,  may  not  show  itself  by  greatly  increasing  the  amount  of  water 
passing  any  given  point  on  the  river.  On  the  other  hand,  a storm  so 
local  that  it  is  not  reported  by  observers  may  cause  a decided  increase 
in  the  amount  of  water  available,  or  even  a destructive  flood. 

In  examining  the  depth  of  run-off- — that  is,  the  quantity  of  water  dis- 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  MADISON  RIVER  AT  RED  BLUFF,  MONTANA. 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  LXI 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.] 


CHARACTER  OF  DRAINAGE  BASINS. 


231 


charged  equivalent  to  a certain  depth  over  any  given  basin — it  will 
usually  be  seen  that  the  larger  the  area  the  less  is  the  relative  amount 
discharged,  and  this  is  especially  the  case  in  those  parts  of  the  country 
where  evaporation  is  notably  greater  than  rainfall.  The  rivers  increase 
in  size  to  a certain  point  as  they  flow  down  the  broad  sandy  channels 
and  then  decrease,  excepting  in  times  of  unusual  floods.  Even  in  those 
parts  of  the  country  where  rainfall  is  great  and  evaporation  of  less 
importance  this  general  law  seems  to  hold  good,  namely,  that  the  rivers 
do  not  increase  in  volume  in  direct  proportion  to  the  area  drained,  but 
that  the  ratio  of  discharge  to  area  is,  in  a general  way,  decreasing  from 
the  headwaters  toward  the  outlet.  This  fact  must  be  borne  in  mind  in 
these  comparisons,  and  due  allowance  made  for  the  point  on  the  river’s 
course  at  which  measurements  are  made. 

POINTS  OF  MAXIMUM  UTILITY. 

There  is  a general  similarity  among  the  rivers  under  discussion  in 
that  they  rise  in  great  mountains  and  flow  as  torrents  through  narrow 
valleys,  gorges,  and  canyons,  entering  finally  upon  plains  of  vast  extent 
and  with  nearly  level  surfaces.  On  account  of  the  great  altitude  the 
sources  of  the  river  are  usually  in  a cold  and  an  inhospitable  region 
where  great  bodies  of  snow  accumulate  during  the  winter,  and  the 
frosts,  which  occur  perhaps  every  month  of  the  summer,  render  ag- 
riculture entirely  out  of  the  question.  Below  this  upper  region  are 
often  valleys  which,  though  still  of  considerable  altitude,  are  suitable 
for  grazing,  and  in  which  a few  of  the  hardier  crops  can  be  raised. 
Here  also  is  found  the  most  valuable  timber,  and  the  climate,  though 
rigorous,  is  favorable  for  habitation,  so  that  settlers,  if  forced  from  the 
lower  regions  from  lack  of  water  or  other  causes,  find  here  place  for 
homes  and  opportunities  for  earning  a livelihood.  These  valleys  also 
are  most  favorably  situated  for  storage  reservoirs,  many  of  glacial 
origin  seeming  to  be  thus  designed  by  nature. 

Farther  down,  beyond  the  canyons,  stretch  the  wide,  open  valleys, 
and  out  beyond  these  the  rich  alluvial  soil  of  the  plains.  It  is  here  at 
these  lower  altitudes  with  a warm,  sunny  climate  that  agriculture  is 
most  successful,  and  here  a given  amount  of  water  properly  used  will 
raise  crops  of  the  greatest  value.  In  these  places,  near  the  foot  of  moun- 
tains, the  water  flows  in  well  defined  channels  with  high  confining  banks. 
Farther  out  upon  the  plains,  however,  the  character  of  the  river  and  its 
channel  change.  The  silt  deposited  by  the  diminished  velocity  chokes 
the  bed  of  the  river,  and  the  water  spreads  over  a great  expanse  of 
sands,  dividing  and  subdividing  into  numerous  shallow  streams  whose 
united  width  may  be  more  than  a mile,  but  whose  depth  at  ordinary 
stages  is  scarcely  over  a foot.  Iu  these  sands  enormous  quantities  of 
water  disappear  by  seepage  and  evaporation,  until  finally,  in  seasons 
of  low  water,  the  channel  becomes  almost  if  not  completely  dry.  The 
conveyance,  therefore,  of  water  through  this  channel  to  land  far  out 


232 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


on  the  plain  involves  a wasting  of  the  greater  portion  in  order  that  a 
small  part  may  reach  the  desired  locality. 

From  the  above  considerations  alone  it  will  be  seen  that  the  point 
from  which  water  can  be  used  to  the  greatest  advantage  is  that  at  which 
the  stream  begins  to  change  in  character,  to  lose  its  well  defined  chan- 
nel and  sink  in  the  sand  of  the  bed,  for  at  this  point  the  river  is  carry- 
ing its  maximum  amount  of  water.  The  land  here  is  usually  as  fertile 
as  any  on  the  plains,  while  the  opportunities  for  caual  building  in  the 
gently  sloping  edges  of  the  plains  are  most  favorable  both  for  taking 
out  the  water  at  the  smallest  cost  and  for  covering  the  largest  extent 
of  land. 

If  the  water  is  diverted  far  above  this  point  it  is  used  with  less  econ- 
omy and,  on  account  of  the  altitude,  the  crops  raised  are  of  less  value, 
while  below  this  point  on  the  open  plain  the  wastage  of  water  required 
for  its  conveyance  in  sandy  channels  results  in  loss,  which  is  iu  general 
proportional  to  the  distance  to  be  covered.  The  chief  interest,  there- 
fore, centers  on  the  examination  and  measurement  of  the  streams  as 
they  leave  the  canyons,  and,  secondary  to  this,  on  similar  work  in  the 
upper  valleys,  where  the  great  storage  sites  are  found. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  DRAINAGE  BASINS. 

Hydrographic  basins  are  divided  by  Powell  into  three  classes,  viz: 
Headwater  districts,  river  trunk  districts,  and  lost  stream  districts. 
The  headwater  districts  include  the  sources  of  the  river  in  the  high 
mountains,  including  thus  the  torrential  portion,  and  also  the  land  used 
for  farming  immediately  adjoining  the  river  where  it  leaves  the  moun- 
tains. In  a large  river  system  this  is  the  most  important  and  most  in- 
teresting portion  of  its  course,  from  the  standpoint  of  irrigation.  Each 
large  perennial  tributary  of  the  river  thus  becomes  a district  by  itself, 
and  can  be  considered  independently  in  any  discussion  of  the  hydrogra- 
phy of  the  region. 

The  river  trunk  district  includes  the  great  area  through  which  the 
main  stream  flows,  but  from  which  the  stream  receives  little  or  no  water. 
This  vast  area,  in  fact,  instead  of  contributing  to  the  flow,  leads  only 
to  its  dissipation,  for,  in  passing  through  the  wide  valleys  or  plains  which 
constitute  this  portion,  much  of  the  water  is  lost  by  seepage  and  evap- 
oration. The  trunk  stream  district  can  not  be  considered  by  itself,  but 
must  be  governed  largely  by  the  conditions  existing  in  all  of  the  head- 
water districts,  and  it  is  only  after  the  problems  connected  with  the 
headwaters  have  been  satisfactorily  settled  that  the  main  stream  can  be 
treated  in  the  best  manner. 

The  third  class  of  basin,  which  in  the  west  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant and  perhaps  most  easily  controlled,  is  that  of  the  lost  river.  In 
this  the  circulation  of  waters  is  complete  within  itself,  that  is,  the  water 
coming  from  the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of  rain  or  snow  gathers  on  the 
mountain  slopes  and  flows  in  torrents  to  the  plains,  where  it  again  dis- 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  MISSOURI  RIVER  AT  CRAIG,  MONTANA. 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December 

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LIBRARY 
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UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.  ] 


DRAINAGE  BASINS  CLASSIFIED. 


233 


appears,  finally  returning  to  the  air  by  evaporation.  Thus  each  basin 
can  be  considered  independently,  since  the  proper  utilization  of  its 
waters  does  not  effect  any  other  basin  except  in  the  most  remote  manner. 

All  these  classes  of  basins  are  represented  in  many  of  the  great  river 
systems,  in  the  Arkansas,  the  Rio  Grande,  the  Gila,  and  others,  each 
embracing  within  its  scope  many  minor  basins,  some  tributary  to  the 
river  and  others  entirely  lost.  Each  of  these  subbasins  constitutes  a 
unit,  and,  while  the  lost  river  basin  may  be  considered  as  an  independent 
unit,  the  others  are  factors,  upon  the  proper  application  of  which  de- 
pends the  final  solution  of  the  problem  as  to  the  best  manner  of  utiliz- 
ing the  water  supply.  Each  one  must  be  carefully  studied  in  turn,  its 
limits  clearly  defined,  and  all  the  characteristics  known.  Within  each 
of  these  basins  the  problems  of  water  supply  are  to  be  studied  for  the 
whole  area,  as  each  part  is  intimately  connected  with  every  other,  and 
whatever  affects  one  locality  influences  the  rest.  A storage  work  built 
on  a minor  tributary,  siuce  it  tends  to  diminish  the  water  at  one  time 
and  increase  it  at  another,  is  of  importance  to  the  majority  ofinhabi- 
tants  of  that  particular  basin.  Considering  all  the  subbasins,  the  in- 
fluence of  one  upon  the  other  varies  with  their  character.  For  example, 
the  headwater  basins,  as  a whole,  must  be  considered  in  connection 
with  works  of  improvement  on  the  trunk-stream  basins,  while,  on  the 
contrary,  the  lost-stream  basins,  being  units  which  stand  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  the  rest  of  the  country,  need  less  consideration,  excepting  as 
they  may  influence  the  wealth  and  population  in  a general  way. 

The  headwater  and  lost-stream  districts  are  easily  recognized,  being 
plainly  marked  by  nature  and  separated  from  each  other  by  mountain 
ranges  or  lower  divides  shown  by  the  topographic  maps.  The  main- 
stream districts,  however,  are  not  so  clearly  delimited,  for  the  lines 
bounding  them  are  somewhat  arbitrary  in  their  nature,  so  that  careful 
study  must  be  given  to  the  conditions  which  govern  them. 

The  lost  rivers,  though  found  scattered  throughout  the  west  in  nearly 
all  of  the  large  drainage  basins,  are  most  numerous  and  in  fact  are  dis- 
tinctive of  the  great  interior  basin.  Within  this  area  not  a drop  of 
water  escapes  to  the  sea;  the  rain  descending  upon  the  mountain  flows 
for  a time  in  streams,  then  finally  passes  into  the  air  again,  is  carried 
by  the  wind,  which  perhaps  striking  against  some  great  escarpment  is 
deflected  upward  and  the  moisture  again  precipitated  enters  upon  a 
new  round  of  river  life,  this  round  being  repeated  again  and  again, 
the  individual  molecule  of  water  perhaps  passing  through  innumerable 
changes  of  condition,  until  finally  it  travels  out  of  the  basin  to  be  re- 
placed by  moisture  which  is  continually  entering,  mainly  from  the  Pa- 
cific side.  In  this  round  of  existence  a portion  of  the  moisture  is  caught 
and  held  for  an  indefinite  time  in  the  sands  or  gravels  of  the  river  bot- 
toms which  are  saturated  by  percolation  from  the  running  streams. 
These  layers  of  porous  material  form  reservoirs  from  which  wells  and 
springs  are  supplied,  the  amount  of  water  delivered  by  these  wells  and 


234 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


springs  being  in  a general  way  proportional  to  the  extent  and  permea- 
bility of  the  sands  and  gravels. 

HUMIDITY  AND  IRRIGATION. 

There  is  a popular  belief  that  by  spreading  the  water  on  the  surface 
of  the  ground  through  irrigation  the  rainfall  is  increased  by  the  addi- 
tion of  this  water  to  the  air  through  evaporation.  There  is  no  question 
that  evaporation  from  the  soil,  especially  from  large  tracts  of  cultivated 
land,  must  tend  to  lower  the  temperature  near  the  surface  and  make 
the  air  far  more  humid,  so  that,  as  far  as  the  feelings  or  sensations  of 
man  go,  irrigation  and  consequent  evaporation  may  tend  to  modify  the 
temperature  and  make  it  better  adapted  for  the  comfort  of  man  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  his  operations.  But,  as  for  modifying  the  climate 
as  a whole  or  bringing  about  such  changes  as  will  cause  an  increased 
rainfall,  it  is  doubtful  if  these  operations  can  have  the  slightest  in- 
fluence, especially  if  the  relative  bulk  of  water  contained  in  the  air  is 
compared  with  that  which  is  added  to  the  ground  and  escapes  by  evap- 
oration, to  increase  the  amount  and  percentage  of  that  already  there. 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  inland  lakes,  with  their 
vast  bodies  of  water  continually  adding  moisture  to  the  air,  increase  the 
rainfall  only  to  a slight  extent,  if  any,  around  their  borders.  If  these 
vast  stretches  of  water  do  not  have  a decided  and  perceptible  influence 
upon  the  rainfall  of  a country,  it  seems  hardly  possible  that  the  smaller 
scattered  areas  of  earth  moistened  by  irrigation,  in  extent  hardly  1 per 
cent  of  the  entire  area  of  any  one  county,  can  have  any  measurable  in- 
fluence upon  the  distribution  of  rain.  The  benefits  to  be  derived  are, 
however,  not  dependent  upon  increasing  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere 
as  a whole,  but  only  of  that  minute  fraction  of  it  which  happens  to  be 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  parts  of  the  earth’s  surface  utilized  by 
man. 

In  short,  in  all  water  conservation,  the  first  efforts  should  be  directed 
toward  making  the  largest  use  of  the  present  available  moisture,  pre- 
venting losses  by  evaporation  not  only  in  the  flowing  water,  but  in  the 
fields,  by  means  of  proper  tilling  and  by  sheltering  the  soil,  and  after 
that  by  increasing  the  available  supply  by  storing  floods,  and  by  mak- 
ing use  of  other  sources  which  require  engineering  skill  and  the  invest- 
ment of  capital. 


EVAPORATION  OBSERVATIONS. 

The  evaporation  observations  described  in  the  previous  annual  report 
have  been  continued  in  the  same  manner  at  Fort  Douglas,  the  military 
post  near  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  at  Fort  Bliss,  about  a mile  above  El 
Paso,  Tex.,  and  also  at  Tempe,  Ariz.  The  results  obtained  at  these 
three  places,  together  with  those  of  previous  years,  are  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing table. 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  SUN  RIVER  18  MILES  ABOVE  AUGUSTA,  MONTANA. 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  LXIII 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.] 


STREAM  MEASUREMENTS. 


235 


'Monthly  totals  of  evaporation  from  large  pans. 


Months. 


Fort  Douglas,  Utah. 


3889. 


1890.  1891 


Fort  Bliss,  Texas. 


1889. 


Tempe  Arizona. 
1889.  I 1890.  I 1891. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


January  . 
February 
March  . . . 


Inches. 
2-0 
2-0 
7 0 


Inches. 
2-7 
2 9 
5 5 


Inches.  Inches. 


Inches. 
3-9 
3 '6 
3-7 


April 3'7  3 '2 

May 41  4 8 

Juue 5 1 -5-2 


July 

August . . . 
September 
October  . . . 
November 
December . 


; 7-6 

/ 0 

10-5  1 6-5 

6-5 

5 7 4-6 

5*2 

4-9  2 J 

2 -5 

10  1-2 

1-4 

11 

9 

6 8 
4 6 
2 9 


7-3  7-4 


10-8 
11  -7 
9-6 
7-6 


13-7 
14  1 
11  0 


6 4 


3 7 4 4 

3-0  


5-5 

5 6 

6 6 
11-5 

5-8 
5-2 
4 6 
3 2 


RESULTS  OF  STREAM  MEASUREMENTS. 

In  the  following  pages  the  data  for  the  various  drainage  basins  are 
presented  in  geographical  order,  beginning  at  the  headwaters  of  the 
Missiouri  and  continuing  southward,  taking  in  turn  the  Yellowstone, 
Platte,  Arkansas,  Rio  Grande,  and  Colorado  River  basins,  then  the 
San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento,  the  Interior  Basin,  and  finally  the  Snake 
drainage.  In  each  of  these  the  order  of  arrangement  is  from  the  head- 
waters toward  the  mouth.  In  the  case  of  the  Rio  Grande,  Gila,  and 
Salt  Lake  basins  a description  of  the  topography  and  its  relation  to 
the  water  supply  is  given  with  some  degree  of  minuteness. 

Descriptions  of  the  gauging  stations,  and  the  results  of  the  measure- 
ments in  these  basins  up  to  June  1890,  have  been  published  in  the 
Eleventh  Annual  Report  of  the  Director  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 
Part  it,  together  with  comments  upon  the  local  topography  and  climate. 
Since  the  time  of  that  publication  readings  of  gauge  height  have  been 
maintained  at  the  principal  localities  mentioned  in  that  report,  enabling 
computations  to  be  made  of  the  daily  mean  discharge  at  those  places, 
thus  affording  opportunity  for  comparison  of  the  amount  of  water  flow- 
ing in  the  years  1889  and  1890. 

The  daily  discharges  of  the  streams  measured  in  these  basins  are 
shown  in  diagrammatic  form  on  the  accompanying  plates.  The  irregular 
lines  indicate  by  their  position  the  amount  of  water  flowing  on  each  day  of 
the  years  given.  The  days  are  indicated  by  the  spaces  from  left  to 
right,  in  general  each  fifth  day  of  the  month  being  designated  by  a ver- 
tical line.  The  amount  of  water  flowing  on  intermediate  days  can  be 
ascertained  by  dividing  these  spaces  by  the  eye  into  fifths.  In  the  case 
of  the  months  having  thirty-one  days  the  space  from  the  twenty-fifth  day 
to  the  first  of  the  next  month  is  proportionally  wider  than  the  others,  and 
in  the  ease  of  the  last  three  days  in  February  proportionally  narrower. 

The  height  of  the  curved  line  above  the  base  indicates  the  average 
amount  of  water  in  cubic  feet  per  second  flowing  on  the  particular  day 
considered.  Thus  these  diagrams  show  not  only  the  amount  of  water 
on  any  given  date,  but  also  the  amount  relative  to  that  of  the  whole 
year  or  series  of  years,  and  to  that  of  other  rivers.  The  average 


236 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


monthly  discharges,  or  at  least  such  as  have  not  been  published  in  the 
previous  report,  are  given  in  condensed  form  at  the  conclusion  of  this 
paper. 

UPPER  MISSOURI  AND  YELLOWSTONE. 

On  PI.  lx  the  discharges  for  the  West  Gallatin,  southwest  of  Boze- 
man, Montana,  and  for  Red  Rock  Creek,  a tributary  of  the  Jefferson, 
are  given  together,  since  the  discharge  of  the  latter  is  so  small  that  it 
does  not  interfere  with  the  clearness  of  the  diagram.  The  discharges 
of  the  West  Gallatin  during  September  and  October  of  1889  are  given, 
being  indicated  by  a line  of  dots  and  dashes.  This  discharge,  as  can 
be  seen,  was  nearly  200  second-feet  less  than  in  the  succeeding  year. 
The  measurements  in  1891,  beginning  in  the  early  part  of  May,  show  a 
less  discharge  than  that  of  1890. 

The  discharge  of  the  Madison,  near  Red  Bluff,  Montana,  is  shown  on 
PI.  lxi,  the  most  noticeable  feature  being  the  comparative  regularity 
of  the  small  oscillations  during  all  the  months  of  the  year  excepting 
those  of  the  spring  floods.  The  discharge  of  1891,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
other  rivers,  is  decidedly  less  than  1890. 

The  amount  of  water  in  the  Missouri  River  at  Craig,  as  shown  on 
PI.  lxii,  is  in  1891  nearly  equal  to  that  of  1890,  the  lower  discharge  of 
the  tributaries,  however,  beiug  noticeable  even  in  the  case  of  the  main 
stream.  The  relative  location  of  these  stations  can  be  seen  on  the 
small  map,  PI.  lviii,  which  also  gives  in  a general  way  the  relative  size 
of  the  areas  drained. 

The  discharge  of  the  Sun  River  above  Augusta,  Montana,  is  shown 
on  PI.  lxiii.  A record  has  been  kept  of  only  one  flood  season,  that  of 
1890,  and  therefore  comparisons  can  not  be  made.  It  is  probable,  how- 
ever, that  this  series  of  measurements  represents  fairly  well  the  ordi- 
nary behavior  of  the  river.  The  low  water  of  the  fall  of  1889  is  shown 
on  the  diagram,  it  being  in  amount  decidedly  less  than  that  of  1890. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  results  given  on  the  diagrams  and 
in  the  tables  with  those  obtained  in  other  years.  The  earliest  recorded 
gaugings  were  made  in  1872  by  Thomas  P.  Roberts,  assistant  engineer 
on  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad.1  He  found  that  the  Gallatin  was  flow- 
ing in  the  latter  part  of  July,  1872,  at  the  rate  of  2,090  second-feet,  the 
Madison  2,670  second-feet,  and  the  Jefferson  3,778,  making  in  all  8,538 
second-feet.  According  to  Roberts’s  judgment,  the  lowest  water  of 
September  and  October  was  about  0,600  second-feet,  and  the  highest 
in  the  middle  or  last  of  May,  33,300  second-feet,  both  amounts  being, 
however,  far  greater  than  obtained  by  later  measurements.  On  July 
31,  1872,  the  measured  discharge  at  a point  71  miles  below  the  Three 
Forks  was  10,000  second  feet,  and  on  August  12,  at  Fort  Benton,  11,132 

1 Report  of  a Reeonnoissance  of  the  Missouri  River  in  1872.  by  Thomas  R.  Roberts,  assistant  engineer 
Union  I’aeific  Railroad.  Printed  for  the  use  of  tho  Engineer  Department,  U.  S.  Army,  1875. 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  YELLOWSTONE  RIVER  AT  HORR,  MONTANA. 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  LXIV 


library 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.] 


GAUGINGS  OF  THE  MISSOURI  RIVER. 


237 


second-feet,1  the  amount  of  these  discharges  relative  to  the  results  ob- 
tained by  recent  measurements  being  shown  on  PI.  lxii. 

In  1882  gaugings  were  made  by  the  Engineer  Corps,  U.  S.  Army,  at 
Stubbs  Ferry,  73  miles  below  the  Three  Forks,  and  12  miles  from  Hel- 
ena, and  of  the  three  principal  tributaries  entering  below  Stubbs  Ferry. 
The  discharge  at  this  place  was,  at  a stage  of  0-5  feet,  3,770  second-feet; 
of  the  Dearborn,  at  high  water  in  the  Missouri,  G22  second-feet;  of  Deep 
Creek,  at  2-75  stage  of  Missouri,  1,800  second-feet,  and  of  the  Sun  River, 
at  3-05  feet  in  Missouri,  4,270  second-feet.  The  total  discharge  of  the 
Missouri  just  below  the  mouth  of  the  Sun  River,  or  about  50  miles 
above  Fort  Benton,  was,  for  a stage  of  3-05  feet,  19,425  second-feet.2 

In  1878  a gauging  was  made  at  Dauphin  Rapids,  95  miles  below  Fort 
Benton  and  about  12  miles  below  Judith  River.  The  discharge  was 
11,002  second-feet3  from  a drainage  area  of  39,247  square  miles.4  It  was 
estimated  that  the  mean  daily  discharge  in  1879  was  13,530  second  feet, 
and  in  1880  was  18,151  second-feet.  Comparing  this  with  the  mean 
annual  rainfall  in  these  years,,  which  was  assumed  to  be  15-80  inches 
and  10-88  inches,  respectively,  in  the  basin,  the  run-off  was  computed 
to  be  30  per  cent  of  the  rainfall  in  1879,  and  37  per  cent  in  1880, 5 6 or  a 
depth  of  4-87  inches  and  0-30  inches  in  these  respective  years. 

On  October  20,  1882,  a measurement  was  made  at  Ryan  Island, 
72  miles  below  the  above-mentioned  locality,  and  about  30  miles  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Musselshell  River,  the  drainage  area  being  estimated 
to  be  39,905  square  miles.  The  discharge  was  7,305  second-feet  at  a 
stage  of  0-87  foot  above  low  water  of  1874.° 

In  the  fall  of  1890  a few  stream  measurements  were  made  by  Mr.  G. 
A.  Marr,  assistant  engineer  of  the  Missouri  River  Commission,  while 
carrying  on  careful  leveling  from  Three  Forks  to  Fort  Benton,  Montana. 
These  gaugings,  although  considered  approximate  merely,  are  given  in 
connection  with  other  data,  because  they  afford  material  for  further 
study.  The  first  of  these  is  the  measurement  of  July  28,  1890,  made 
above  the  Three  Forks,  when  it  was  found  that  the  Gallatin  discharged 
730  second-feet  and  the  three  streams — the  Gallatin,  Madison,  and  Jef- 
erson — aggregated  2,803  second-feet.  The  second  measurement  was  on 
August  0,  1890,  on  the  Missouri,  just  below  Gallatin,  the  total  dis- 
charge being  2,400  second-feet,  and  the  third  on  September  18,  1890, 
near  Canyon  Ferry,  giving  2,082  second-feet. 

The  daily  discharge  of  the  Yellowstone  River  below  the  National 
Park  is  given  in  graphic  form  on  PI.  lxv.  The  measurements  were 
made  about  0 miles  below  the  town  of  Cinnabar,  at  Horr,  a station  de- 
scribed in  a previous  report.  As  shown  on  this  plate,  the  discharge 
for  1891  is  similar  to  that  for  1890,  but  is,  in  general,  a little  less. 

1 Report  of  a reconnoissanoe  of  the  Missouri  River,  etc.,  p.  54. 

2 Annual  Report  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers,  XT.  S.  Army,  1883,  p.  1340. 

3 Ibid.,  1878,  p.  699. 

* Ibid.,  1883,  p.  1353. 

6 Ibid.,  p.  1353,  et  seq. 

6 Ibid.,  p.  1354. 


238 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


Many  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Yellowstone,  especially  those  heading 
in  Wyoming,  are  of  great  importance  in  irrigation,  their  waters  in  the 
summer  being  entirely  diverted  upon  the  fertile  lands  along  the  valleys. 
The  State  engineer  of  Wyoming,  under  authority  of  recent  legislation, 
has  gauged  some  of  these  streams  for  the  purpose,  primarily,  of  obtain- 
ing information  by  which  to  determine  the  rights  of  the  various  canals 
and  ditches  claiming  the  waters.  In  this  manner  a body  of  data  is 
being  acquired  concerning  these  tributaries,  which,  however,  has  not 
as  yet  been  published.  For  example,  a permanent  gauging  station  has 
been  established  on  Clear  Creek,  near  Buffalo,  Wyoming,  this  stream, 
a tributary  of  Powder  River,  supplying  water  for  a part  of  one  of  the 
most  important  agricultural  areas  in  the  State.  In  the  annual  report 
of  the  State  engineer  for  1890  it  is  stated  that,  upon  explaining  to  some 
of  the  public-spirited  citizens  of  that  vicinity  the  importance  of  a 
gauging  station  and  the  inability  of  the  engineer  to  establish  it  on 
account  of  the  lack  of  appropriation  from  the  State,  the  citizens  imme- 
diately volunteered  to  assist  in  the  work,  and  an  arrangement  was 
made  by  which  they  undertook  the  construction  of  a weir.  Pending 
the  completion  of  the  weir,  a temporary  gauging  station  was  estab- 
lished, and  daily  readings  are  taken  of  the  discharge  of  the  stream. 

The  discharge  of  the  Yellowstone  was  measured  in  August,  1879,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Big  Horn,  at  a stage  of  1-70  feet  above  low  water  of 

1878,  giving  for  the  Big  Horn  5,865  second-feet,  for  the  upper  Yellow- 
stone 7,471  second-feet,  and  total  discharge  below  the  Big  Horn  13,336 
second-feet.  At  Fort  Keogh,  100  miles  by  river  below  the  Big  Horn, 
the  discharge  in  September,  1878,  was  14,462  second-feet,  in  October, 

1879,  was  6,505  secoml-feet,  and  in  1883,  at  about  the  same  stage,  6,015 
second-feet.  At  Wolf  Rapids,  50  miles  below,  in  September,  1878, 
gaugings  gave  11,235  second-feet,  and  at  Diamond  Island,  100  miles  by 
river  below  Wolf  Rapids,  in  October,  1878,  the  discharge  was  8,155 
second  feet.1 

The  total  drainage  area  of  the  Yellowstone  is  69,683  square  miles, 
and  of  the  Missouri,  above  the  mouth  of  the  Yellowstone,  95,093 
square  miles.  The  data  for  the  total  discharge  of  the  Upper  Missouri 
and  Yellowstone  are  not  sufficiently  extended  to  enable  exact  compari- 
sons to  be  made,  but  from  inspection  of  the  foregoing  it  appears  that 
the  quantity  of  water  in  the  two  streams  is  about  equal. 

PLATTE  BASIN. 

The  most  important  series  of  measurements  in  this  drainage  basin 
are  those  being  made  on  the  Cache  la  Poudre,  about  12  miles  above 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado.  These  have  been  fully  described  in  the  pre- 
vious report,  and  the  results  given  up  to  June  30, 1890.  The  diagrams 
on  PI.  lxv  show  graphically  the  daily  discharges  up  to  the  present 
time  and  afford  a means  of  comparing  one  year  with  another. 


Annual  Report  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army,  1880,  p.  1476,  and  1883,  p.  1342. 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 


U.  S.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


!QQ4- /88S 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  LXV 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  CACHE  LA  POUDRE  12  MILES  ABOVE  FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO,  1884  TO  1891. 


LIBRARY 


NEWELL.] 


GAUGINGS  OF  PLATTE  RIVER. 


239 


For  clearness  these  data  have  been  placed  on  two  diagrams,  the  dis- 
charges for  1884, 1885, 1886,  and  1887  being  placed  on  one  page,  and  those 
for  1888,  1889,  and  1890  on  the  other.  In  addition  to  these  discharges 
for  individual  years,  the  line  showing  the  average  daily  discharge  has 
been  plotted  on  both  diagrams.  This  curve  shown  by  heavy  dots  and 
dashes  has  been  obtained  by  combining  the  results  for  each  year  since 
the  beginning  of  the  observations.  The  discharges  for  1884  and  1885 
come  far  above  this  line,  while  those  for  1886  and  1887  agree  with  it 
fairly  well.  During  the  years  succeeding  these,  however,  the  flood 
discharge  does  not  at  any  time  reach  this  line,  showing  the  great 
diminution  in  flow  for  the  last  three  years. 

The  fluctuations  and  uses  of  the  waters  of  the  Cache  la  Poudre  are 
discussed  by  Prof.  L.  Cl.  Carpenter  in  the  annual  reports  of  the  Colo- 
rado State  Agricultural  College  at  Fort  Collins.1  Other  measurements 
of  flowing  water  have  been  made  at  various  points  in  the  Platte  basin, 
these,  however,  being  mainly  disconnected  and  fragmentary.  Mr. 
Henry  Gannett,  in  the  Hayden2  report  for  1876,  gives  the  results  of  a 
number  made  on  tributaries  heading  near  the  continental  divide.  The 
State  engineer  of  Wyoming  has  also  made  a number  of  gaugings  of 
the  Laramie  and  other  rivers,  and  has  established  gauging  stations, 
the  results  of  which  promise  to  be  of  value. 

A permanent  station  on  the  Laramie  was  established  in  December, 
1888,  at  Woods,  near  the  southwestern  corner  of  Albany  County,  about 
30  miles  above  Laramie  City.  During  the  following  winter  and  up  to 
April  1,  1889,  the  discharge  was  approximately  112  second-feet.  The 
maximum  for  the  year,  1,620  second-feet,  occurred  in  June,  falling  from 
this  to  a minimum  of  43  second-feet  in  September.  A smaller  quantity 
of  water  was  discharged  in  that  year  than  ever  before  known,  the 
maximum  in  some  seasons  being  over  6,000  second-feet. 

The  North  Platte  was  gauged  by  Mr.  A.  M.  Van  Auken,  civil  engi- 
neer, near  Fort  Laramie,  Wyoming,  in  1887,  1888,  and  1889,  and  also 
near  the  Wyoming- Nebraska  line  during  the  low  stages  of  1890,  the 
velocities  in  each  instance  being  obtained  by  means  of  floats.  The  re- 
sults are  not  considered  by  him  to  be  more  than  approximations,  but 
as  such  they  have  their  value,  and  with  this  qualification  they  are  here- 
with given.  It  is  believed  by  Mr.  Van  Auken  that  these  figures  will 
give  a fair  idea  of  the  discharge  of  the  stream,  and  that  the  results  are 
more  accurate  for  the  smaller  discharges  than  for  the  larger. 

1 The  State  Agricultural  College  of  the  State  of  Colorado.  Third  annual  report  of  the  agricultural 
experiement  station,  1890.  Fort  Collins,  Colo.,  p.  58. 

2 Tenth  Annual  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Geol.  and  Geog.  Survey  of  the  Territories,  F.  V.  Uayden.  1870, 
pp.  323-326. 


240 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


North  Platte  Hirer. 


Month. 

Discharge. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

1887. 

Sec.  f. 

Sec./. 

Sec./. 

May 

8,  240 

3,  520 

5,  255 

June 

10,  140 

7,  680 

8,  995 

July 

7,  680 

3,640 

5,  676 

August 

3,  720 

3,  380 

3,  560 

1888. 

May 

4,  510 

3,780 

3,  991 

June  1 to  21 

6,  490 

3,  920 

5,  671 

July  11  to  31 

6,  060 

4,280 

4,711 

August 

5,  180 

3,  900 

4.  341 

September 

3,  920 

3,430 

3,  822 

October  1 to  22 

3,  920 

3,110 

3,517 

1889. 

April 

3,438 

2,  970 

3,  208 

May 

8,  120 

2,  960 

4,216 

Month. 


1889 — Continued. 
June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November  1 to  15  . . . 

1890. 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September  1 to  6 


Discharge. 


Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Sec.  f. 

Sec.  f. 

Sec.  /. 

10, 260 

5, 170 

8.  240 

6,080 

4,240 

5,  506 

4,  290 

3.220 

3,  498 

3,  240 

2.  580 

2.  892 

3,210 

2,430 

2,  859 

3,  960 

2,  370 

3.  205 

3,400 

3, 180 

3,316 

3,  720 

3,200 

3.457 

6,  970 

3,  840 

5, 151 

10,  240 

8, 180 

8.682 

7,  960 

5, 120 

6,  469 

5,  425 

3,  380 

4, 160 

3,  680 

3,  440 

3,560 

ARKANSAS  BASIN. 

The  gauging  stations  in  this  basin  were  described  in  the  last  annual 
report  of  this  Survey,  to  which  reference  should  be  made  for  details  re- 
garding the  measurements  up  to  that  time.  The  results  of  these 
measurements  and  computations  of  discharge  for  the  upper  tributaries 
of  the  Arkansas  are  given  on  PI.  lxvi,  and  for  the  Canyon  City  sta- 
tion on  PI.  lxvii.  Referring  to  this  plate,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
most  notable  fact  is  the  increased  discharge  during  the  spring  of  1891. 
This  is  al.so  brought  out  by  the  table  of  monthly  discharges  given  on 
page  849.  No  measurements  have  been  made  of  the  discharge  at  sta- 
tions on  the  lower  Arkansas  since  1889.  The  gauge  heights  at  these 
stations  have  been  published  in  diagrammatic  form  in  comparison  with 
the  rainfall  in  the  basin  in  the  previous  annual  report.  (PI.  lxxi. 
Eleventh  Ann.  Rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  part  ii.) 

RIO  GRANDE  BASIN. 

TOPOGRAPHY  AND  ELEVATIONS. 

A study  of  the  hydrography  of  the  Rio  Grande  Basin,  PI.  lxviii, 
and  of  its  facilities  for  water  conservation  offers  some  of  the  most  in- 
teresting problems  undertaken  by  the  Geological  Survey.  This  is  due 
not  only  to  the  large  extent  of  area  covered  by  this  basin,  but  also  to 
the  wide  difference  in  topography  and  character  of  soil  and  climate. 
The  matter  is  further  complicated  by  the  relation  of  political  divisions, 
State  and  county  lines,  to  the  basin  as  a whole. 

This  discussion  of  the  Rio  Grande  Basin,  including  the  subbasin  of 
the  Pecos,  its  largest  tributary,  is  confined  to  that  portion  lying  within 
the  State  of  Colorado  and  the  Territory  of  New  Mexico,  the  part  in 
Texas  possessing  a smaller  interest  in  this  connection.  The  total  area 
in  these  three  political  divisions  above  the  junction  of  the  Pecos  with 
the  Rio  Grande  is,  approximately,  145,200  square  miles.  Not  all  of  the 
area  embraced  within  the  limits  of  this  great  topographic  basin  con- 
tributes water  to  the  river,  but  on  the  contrary,  there  are  extensive 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  UPPER  TRIBUTARIES  OF  THE  ARKANSAS  RIVER,  1890. 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 

10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  • 5 10  15  20  21 


LIBrtARy 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.] 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  RIO  GRANDE  BASIN. 


241 


tracts,  as  in  the  case  of  all  the  southern  basins  of  the  arid  region,  from 
which  there  is  no  outflow.  The  total  area  north  of  the  Texas-New 
Mexico  line,  including  the  lost  river  basins,  is  89,100  square  miles,  and 
that  portion  in  Colorado  included  in  the  above  measurement  is  7,527 
square  miles. 

The  largest  part  of  the  water  flowing  in  the  Eio  Grande  comes  from 
the  mountains  of  Eio  Grande  and  Conejos  Counties,  Colorado,  and  also, 
though  to  a less  degree,  from  the  mountains  in  Costilla  County.  The 
river  reaches  its  maximum,  considering  all  seasons  of  the  year,  at  a 
point  not  far  from  its  headwaters,  for  after  flowing  through  the  San 
Luis  Park  and  entering  New  Mexico  the  various  tributaries,  though 
draining  large  areas,  do  not  contribute  a notable  amount  to  the  stream 
excepting  in  times  of  floods,  and  on  the  other  hand  there  is  a constant 
loss  by  evaporation  and  artificial  diversions. 

The  Eio  Grande  Basin  is  a long,  narrow  strip  of  country,  the  peren- 
nial supply  of  water  coming  principally  from  a comparatively  small 
area  of  about  2,000  square  miles  of  lofty  mountains.  The  greater  part 
of  the  remaining  catchment  contributes  water  only  in  times  of  flood, 
that  is,  in  the  months  of  May  and  June,  while  during  the  rest  of  the 
year  the  waters  falling  within  this  area  or  coming  from  melting  snows 
do  not  reach  the  trunk  stream,  but  are  evaporated  or  sink  into  the 
sands.  In  addition  to  the  areas  contributing  a perennial  supply  of 
water  and  a spasmodic  supply,  there  is  a vast  area  of  lost  river  basins 
from  which,  as  mentioned  before,  no  water  comes  at  any  time,  but  which 
from  topographic  features  may  be  included  within  this  great  catchment 
basin. 

The  following  descriptions  of  these  topographic  features  and  the 
character  of  the  water  supply  of  the  subbasins  embraced  within  the 
Eio  Grande  drainage  system  were  taken  from  reports  made  at  various 
times  by  assistants  who  were  engaged  in  water  measurements  or  pre- 
liminary examinations  for  reservoir  sites.  Among  these  were  Messrs. 
L.  D.  Hopson,  G.  T.  Quinby,  E.  S.  Tarr,  W.  W.  Follett,  and  H.  M.  Dyar. 
In  order  to  condense  and  unify  this  material  and  combine  it  with  data 
from  all  sources,  the  individual  reports  have  not  been  designated,  but 
they  have  been  inserted  as  needed  in  geographical  order. 

The  Eio  Grande  rises  in  southwestern  Colorado  (PI.  lxviii),  flows 
easterly  for  a time  as  a mountain  stream,  and  finally  enters  the  San 
Luis  Valley  about  80  miles  below  its  source.  In  this  valley  it  receives 
from  the  north  the  waters  of  the  Saguache  and  San  Luis  rivers  by 
seepage,  if  at  all;  from  the  west,  near  the  lower  end  of  the  valley,  the 
Alamosa,  La  Jara,  Conejos,  and  San  Antonio  rivers;  and  from  the 
east  the  Trinchera,  Culebra,  and  Eio  Costilla.  About  4 miles  north  of 
the  Colorado  State  line  it  enters  a long  canyon  locally  known  as  the 
Eio  Grande  Canyon. 

The  general  slope  of  the  valley  is  still  toward  the  south,  the  river 
descending,  however,  more  rapidly  than  does  the  surface  of  the  country. 

12  geol.,  pt.  2 16 


242 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


This  canyon  is  300  or  400  feet  deep  in  places,  appearing  from  above  as 
a gash  in  an  otherwise  level  mesa.  Its  southern  end  is  3 miles  below 
Embudo,  Yew  Mexico,  where  the  walls  open  and  the  river  enters  the 
Espanola  Y alley.  While  in  the  canyon  above  Embudo  the  river 
receives  from  the  east  Taos  River,  Embudo  Creek,  and  other  small 
streams,  and  in  the  Espanola  Yalley  it  is  increased  by  the  Chaina  flow- 
ing in  from  the  west  and  by  a number  of  streams  from  the  east. 

At  the  lower  end  of  Espanola  Yalley  the  river  passes  through  White 
Rock  Canyon,  a gorge  in  a range  of  hills  stretching  from  the  Jemez  to 
the  Santa  Fe  Mountains.  From  Pena  Blanca  near  the  lower  end  of 
this  canyon  nearly  to  Socorro  the  river  flows  in  a valley  from  1 to  3 miles 
wide,  bounded  on  each  side  by  mesas  from  300  to  000  feet  above  the 
river.  About  20  miles  below  Pena  Blanca  the  Jemez  enters  from  the 
west,  and  60  miles  or  more  below  Albuquerque  the  Puerco  comes  in 
from  the  same  side.  Below  these  streams  the  Rio  Grande  has  no  tribu- 
taries of  note  until  the  Pecos  is  reached,  about  400  miles  by  river  below 
El  Paso. 

At  and  below  Socorro  the  valley  contracts  until  it  becomes  too  nar- 
row for  agriculture,  but  from  San  Antonio  to  San  Marcial  the  valley  is 
from  1 to  2 miles  wide.  Below  San  Marcial  the  river  swings  to  the 
westward  around  the  Fra  Cristobal  and  Caballos  Mountains,  which  lie 
along  the  west  edge  of  the  Jornada  del  Muerto,  the  valley  from  San 
Marcial  to  Rincon  being  narrow,  low,  and  marshy.  At  Rincon  the  river 
enters  a canyon  which  extends  to  Fort  Selden,  a distance  of  15  miles. 
The  Mesilla  Yalley,  the  most  fertile  valley  of  Yew  Mexico,  begins  below 
Fort  Selden  and  extends  to  the  pass  above  El  Paso,  a distance  of  over 
50  miles.  Above  El  Paso  the  banks  of  the  river  again  assume  the  can- 
yon like  character  for  three  miles,  and  the  river  passing  this  enters  the 
Ysleta  Yalley,  a fine  grape  and  fruit  producing  country. 

From  this  brief  description  of  the  river  it  will  be  seen  that  outside  of 
the  Mesilla  Valley  there  are  no  large  valleys 'in  Yew  Mexico  along  the 
Rio  Grande  or  along  any  of  its  smaller  tributaries,  the  valleys  of  the 
main  river  being  generally  narrow,  seldom  reaching  a width  of  over  two 
miles,  and  alternating  with  long  canyons  or  gorges.  The  water  of  the 
stream,  especially  in  the  central  and  southern  part  of  Yew  Mexico,  is 
heavily  loaded  with  silt,  and  this  is  deposited  to  a certain  extent  in 
each  of  these  valleys,  forming  broad  alluvial  plains.  The  channel  of  the 
river  through  these  valleys  is  usually  choked  by  sandbars,  and  in  times 
of  low  water  the  stream  divides  into  a number  of  minor  channels,  and 
apparently  a large  percentage  of  the  water  is  lost  in  these  great  de- 
posits of  fine  material. 

The  canyons  above  these  valleys  are  not  cut  into  hard,  indurated 
rocks,  but  in  many  cases  are  bordered  by  steep  walls  of  comparatively 
soft,  friable  sandstones,  alternating  with  conglomerates  or  beds  of  clay, 
the  whole  series,  in  the  northern  part  ot  the  territory  at  least,  being- 
capped  by  a vesicular  lava.  The  fall  through  these  canyons  being  great, 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  ARKANSAS  RIVER  AT  CANYON  CITY,  COLORADO.  1888  TO  1891. 


8 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 

10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  2! 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.  J 


RAINFALL  IN  RIO  GRANDE  BASIN. 


243 


the  down-cutting  is  rapid,  and  thus  the  waters  are  supplied  constantly 
with  fresh  detritus,  part  of  which  is  deposited  in  turn  in  the  valley 
below. 

PI.  lxix  gives  a view  characteristic  of  these  canyon  walls,  showing 
the  soft  crumbling  sandstones  and  the  fantastic  shapes  into  which  they 
are  carved  by  the  rain  and  frost.  This  view  was  taken  near  the  Em 
biulo  railroad  station  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  point  at  which  river 
gaugings  had  been  made.  The  height  of  the  cliffs  from  the  bottom  to 
the  upper  pinnacles  shown  in  the  picture  is  dOO  or  000  feet,  the  total 
depth  of  the  canyon  at  this  point  being  about  1,000  feet.  The  sandstone 
crumbles  readily  under  the  hand,  the  only  exception  being  in  the  case 
of  a few  thin  bands,  apparently  containing  a little  lime,  their  superior 
hardness  enabling  them  to  resist  erosion  and  thus  stand  out,  as  shown 
in  the  photograph.  Such  carvings  of  soft  rock  could,  of  course!  exist 
only  in  an  arid  region,  where  the  rainfall  is  too  slight  to  erode  rapidly 
or  to  encourage  the  growth  of  vegetation. 

On  PI.  lxviii  is  given  a contoured  map  of  the  basin,  including  on  the 
east  the  drainage  of  the  Pecos  and  on  the  southwest  that  of  the  Mim- 
bres,  although  the  latter  river  belongs  to  the  class  of  lost  rivers  and 
even  in  times  of  flood  does  not  contribute  to  the  Rio  Grande,  but  to  the 
river  system  in  Mexico  west  of  the  Rio  Grande.  On  this  map  the  con- 
tours show  the  elevation  for  each  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the 
increase  of  height  is  further  shown  by  the  depth  of  tint,  the  highest 
mountains  being  heavily  tinted.  The  great  mountain  ranges  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  basin,  which  furnish  the  principal  supply  of  water, 
are  thus  clearly  shown,  and  on  the  south  the  broad  desert  plains  are 
seen,  together  with  their  relation  to  the  river  and  to  the  dividing  ridges 
of  mountains.  This  map  is  of  necessity  generalized  to  a large  extent, 
from  the  fact  that  topographic  surveys  have  not  been  carried  on  over  a 
large  part  of  the  area. 

ANNUAL  AND  MONTHLY  RAINFALL. 

The  annual  rainfall,  as  measured  in  various  parts  of  the  Rio  Grande 
basin,  is  shown  graphically  on  Fig.  223,  the  stations  selected  being 
those  in  or  near  the  basin  and  for  which  there  was  the  longest  record. 
Ten  stations  are  represented  on  this  diagram,  the  depth  of  rain  at  each 
being  shown  by  the  height  of  the  black  blocks  or  steps  above  each  base 
line.  Each  year  during  which  observations  were  made  is  represented 
by  one  of  these  blocks  or  steps,  the  blank  spaces  showing  either  that 
no  observations  were  taken  or  else  that  they  were  not  continuous 
throughout  the  year.  The  horizontal  lines  give  the  depth  in  inches  and 
the  vertical  lines  divide  the  five-year  periods,  so  that  wherever  the 
observations  are  complete  there  are  five  of  these  black  steps  or  blocks 
between  two  vertical  lines.  The  years  are  shown  by  the  figures  at  the 
top  of  the  diagram,  1860-1864  signifying  that  the  observations  on  these 
years  whenever  made  are  to  be  found  in  that  space.  Most  of  the  obser- 


244 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


rations,  however,  begin  about  1870  and  continue  with  more  or  less  in- 
terruption until  1889. 

This  diagram  serves  to  show  the  great  irregularity  in  the  measured 
rainfall  and  the  range  in  total  depth  for  any  one  place,  and  demonstrates 
how  difficult  it  is  to  draw  general  conclusions.  The  most  marked  fea- 
ture is  the  extraordinary  rainfall  reported  at  Fort  Garland  in  the  years 
1870,  1871,  and  1872.  It  is  highly  probable,  however,  that  this  report 
is  an  error,  although  the  individual  observations  of  the  storms  in  these 
years  do  not  seem  to  indicate  it.  In  the  lower  left-hand  corner  the  rain- 
fall at  two  widely  separated  stations  is  given,  that  for  Fort  Selden  for 
the  years  1867  to  1876,  inclusive,  and  that  for  Dealing  from  1883,  con- 
tinuing through  that  decade. 


cO  <X>  cD  cO 


co  <D  cO  cO  cO 


Fig.  223.— Diagram  of  annual  rainfall  in  the  Bio  Grande  Basin. 


The  rainfall  at  Fort  Wingate,  one  of  the  longest  of  the  series  of  meas- 
urements, shows  the  character  of  the  fluctuations  in  this  basin,  in  two 
instances  years  of  great  rainfall  being  immediately  followed  by  years  of 
drought.  The  Santa  Fe  record  is  broken,  the  years  1883  and  1884  being 
lost,  and  the  El  Paso  record  is  also  deficient  in  the  years  1877  and 
1878;  otherwise  these  give  a long  and  instructive  series  of  observations, 
showing  that  the  rainfall  at  most  stations  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
basin  seldom  falls  below  10  inches  and  rarely  rises  above  20.  In  the 


US.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY'. 


TWELFTH  ANNl JAL  REPORT.  PART  1 1.  PL  LXVIII . 


COLORADO 


N MEXICO 


THE 

RIO  GRANDE  BASIN 


COLORADO  8c  NEW  MEXICO 
INCLUDING  THE 
PECOS. 

BY 

F.H. NEWELL. 

SCALE 


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LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.] 


THE  RIO  GRANDE  IN  COLORADO. 


245 


southern  part  of  the  basin,  however,  the  rainfall  apparently  fluctuates 
for  the  most  part  below  10  inches  a year,  at  long  intervals  rising  above 
this. 

The  distribution  of  the  rain  by  months  throughout  the  year  at  various 
stations  in  the  Rio  Grande  basin  is  shown  on  PI.  lxx,  the  height  of  the 
small  black  pillars  showing  the  mean  depth  of  rainfall  at  the  various 
stations  named  for  a period  of  from  12  to  15  years.  This  diagram  does 
not  exhibit  the  rainfall  in  any  one  year,  but  shows  the  average  distri- 
bution at  these  points.  The  most  noticeable  feature  is  the  excessive 
rainfall  at  all  stations  in  July,  and  especially  in  August,  and  the  di- 
minished amount  in  the  early  and  late  months  of  the  year. 

The  basin  of  the  Rio  Grande  can  readily  be  divided  into  a number  of 
parts,  belonging  to  one  or  another  of  the  three  classes  of  drainage  dis- 
tricts— headwaters,  trunk-stream,  or  lost  rivers.  These  are  usually 
sharply  distinguished  by  peculiar  topographic  features,  and  are  well 
recognized  in  common  usage.  In  the  descriptions  of  the  hydrography 
of  these,  given  in  the  following  pages,  the  order  of  succession  is  taken 
in  general  from  the  headwaters  down,  taking  first  the  district  in  the 
State  of  Colorado,  including  the  source  of  the  river,  the  San  Luis  Park 
and  the  lost  river  basins  to  the  north,  then  the  Taos  district  and  the 
adjoining  areas,  and  in  succession  the  Espanola  Valley,  the  Chama  dis- 
trict, the  Santa  Fe  district,  the  Albuquerque  Valley,  the  tributaries 
below  the  Chama,  and  the  Mesilla  Valley.  After  these  descriptions 
of  the  main  Rio  Grande  drainage,  that  of  the  Pecos  in  New  Mexico  is 
given,  condensed  from  a report  by  R.  S.  Tarr,  and  finally  the  lost  river 
basins  between  the  Rio  Grande  and  Pecos  are  briefly  mentioned. 

THE  COLORADO  DISTRICT  OF  THE  RIO  GRANDE. 

The  headwater  district  of  the  Rio  Grande  Basin,  embracing  the  San 
Luis  Valley,  surpasses  all  other  subdivisions  in  extent  of  irrigation  and 
permanence  of  water  supply,  and  is  of  the  first  importance  in  any  con- 
sideration of  the  conservation  of  the  waters.  The  general  elevation  of 
the  cultivated  land  of  this  division  is  from  7,500  to  7,700  feet  or  over. 
The  central  plain  is  bounded  by  high  mountains  of  9,000  to  over  13,000 
feet  in  elevation  on  all  sides,  excepting  on  the  south,  where  the  valley 
opens  into  New  Mexico.  The  southern  boundary  of  this  district  may 
be  taken  as  coincident  with  the  State  line  of  Colorado,  for  on  the  south 
the  topographic  features  do  not  sharply  divide  this  district  from  the 
adjoining  portions  of  the  Rio  Grande  Basin. 

The  great  division  of  the  river  basin  includes  45  square  miles  in  San 
Juan  County,  615  square  miles  in  Hinsdale  County,  2,520  square  miles 
in  Saguache  County,  1,170  square  miles  in  Rio  Grande  County,  and  all 
of  Costilla  County — 1,720  square  miles,  and  of  Conejos  County  1,200 
square  miles — in  all  an  area  of  7,270  square  miles.  The  total  area  of  the 
comparatively  level  lands  of  the  valley  is  2,400  square  miles,  and  of  the 
high  mountains4,  870  square  miles.  Most,  if  not  all,  of  the  water  must 


246 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


be  derived  from  this  latter  area,  namely,  of  these  higher  mountains,  for 
the  rain  which  falls  upon  the  valley  itself  does  not  add  perceptibly  to 
the  available  supply  of  water. 

From  the  high  mountains  which  surround  this  division  come  innu- 
merable small  streams,  some  of  which  unite  into  creeks  of  notable  size, 
while  others  sink,  gradually  disappearing  into  the  porous  soil  of  the 
valley  bottom.  The  Rio  Grande  rises  in  the  extreme  western  prolonga- 
tion of  this  drainage  area,  and  flows  in  a general  easterly  course,  re- 
ceiving a number  of  these  small  streams  on  its  way.  Shortly  after  en- 
tering the  valley  proper,  or  park,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  near  the 
town  of  Del  Norte,  it  begins  to  take  a general  southwesterly  course, 
which  finally  changes  to  the  south.  Beyond  .Del  Norte  are  few  streams 
contributing  water  to  the  river  throughout  the  year:  so  that,  taking  the 
year  as  a whole,  the  maximum  amount  of  water  in  the  river  is  to  be 
found  comparatively  near  the  head  of  the  river,  and  probably  not  far 
from  Del  Norte. 

In  its  headwaters  the  Rio  Grande  is  a torrential  stream,  but  after 
leaving  Wagon  Wheel  Gap  it  gradually  loses  its  steep  descent,  and 
♦ beyond  Del  Norte  has  a very  light  grade,  becomes  sinuous,  and  often 
divides  into  several  channels,  especially  in  floods.  There  is  constant 
tendency  to  shift  the  channel  and  to  cut  off  the  loops,  and  thus  great 
trouble  and  expense  are  occasioned  to  the  owners  of  canals,  in  the  at- 
tempt to  preserve  the  headworks  and  prevent  the  river  from  washing 
them  out  or  leaving  them. 

The  gauging  station  of  the  Geological  Survey  is  at  a point  about  3 miles 
above  Del  Norte,  thus  obtaining  the  discharge  of  the  river  above  the 
headworks  of  most  of  the  canals,  so  that  the  measurements  given  in  the 
accompanying  tables  may  be  taken  as  showing  the  maximum  flow  of 
the  river  at  the  point  between  the  torrential  portion  and  the  sinuous 
plain  portion.  The  discharge  for  nearly  two  years  is  shown  on  PI.  lxxi, 
by  the  examination  of  which  the  relation  between  the  floods  of  1890  and 
1891  can  be  seen  at  a glance.  In  1891  during  the  early  months  the 
water  was  high,  and  there  was  promise  of  a large  flood.  This  culmi- 
nated, however,  in  the  first  week  in  May,  and  then  declined  rapidly,  reach- 
ing its  lowest  point  at  the  time  when  on  the  previous  year  the  water 
was  highest.  The  dotted  line  in  July,  August,  and  September  gives 
the  approximate  discharge  for  1889,  the  measured  discharge  for  the 
rest  of  that  year  being  shown  by  the  fine  line. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  catchment  area  of  this  division  does  not 
contribute  water  to  the  Rio  Grande;  thus  there  are  two  subdivisions — 
that  of  the  perennial  drainage  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  lost  river 
drainage.  The  entire  northern  or  northeastern  part  of  this  division  in 
Colorado  belongs  to  the  class  of  lost  rivers,  since  the  waters  of  the 
streams  do  not  penetrate  across  the  broad  San  Luis  Park,  but  gradu- 
ally disappear  into  the  gravelly  soil — as,  for  example,  the  Saguache 
Creek — or  flow  into  the  San  Luis  lakes,  from  which  they  escape  by 
evaporation,  leaving  the  bed  dry  for  a part  of  the  year. 


EARTH  COLUMNS  AT  EMBUDO,  NEW  MEXICO. 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS  . 


NEWELL.] 


AGRICULTURE  IN  SAN  LUIS  VALLEY. 


247 


Although  a large  per  cent  of  the  drainage  from  the  mountains  sur- 
rounding the  park  is  lost  by  evaporation,  a small  amount  penetrates 
the  soil  and  fills  the  porous  strata.  The  extensive  irrigation  which,  is 
practiced  in  the  central  parts  of  the  plain  also  adds  water,  and  thus  the 
unconsolidated  sands  and  gravels  are  completely  saturated.  These 
waters  gradually  rising  in  the  earth  tend  to  create  swamps,  and  al- 
ready certain  areas  of  valuable  land  have  been  ruined.  Systems  of 
drainage  must  be  constructed  in  many  places  to  take  away  this  injuri- 
ous excess  of  water. 

It  has  been  found  possible  to  recover  some  of  this  water  by  means 
of  wells,  and  on  the  lower  grounds  a large  number  ot  artesian  wells  of 
small  diameter  and  of  depth  from  70  to  200  feet  or  more  have  been 
put  down,  giving  an  excellent  supply  for  domestic  purposes  and  for 
watering  stock. 

SAN  I. CIS  VALLEY. 

The  San  Luis  Park  or  valley  proper  comprises  the  lower  lands  or 
central  part  of  the  basin,  and  consists  of  the  broad  extent  of  nearly 
level  land,  the  soil  being  probably  of  lacustrine  origin.  Large  irrigat- 
ing systems  take  water  from  the  Rio  Grande  and  carry  it  both  north 
and  south  into  these  rich  and  level  bottom  lands,  while  smaller  canals 
and  ditches  owned  by  farmers  are  to  be  found  around  the  edge  of  the 
valley,  utilizing  the  water  of  the  smaller  streams. 

This  valley  is  far  the  largest  -on  the  Rio  Grande,  being  nearly  70 
miles  long  and  40  miles  wide,  the  vast  extent  of  unbroken  land  sur- 
passing in  area  the  total  of  the  agricultural  land  along  the  river  in 
New  Mexico.  The  surface  slopes  from  both  sides  away  from  the  river, 
the  stream  flowing  upon  a low,  broad  ridge  and  the  valley  bottom  as 
a whole  falls  gently  toward  the  south,  parallel  to  the  river. 

Although  the  altitude  of  the  lands  of  the  valley  bottom  is  high,  yet 
the  climate  is  not  too  severe  for  agriculture.  The  snowfall  is  generally 
too  light  to  insure  the  success  of  winter  wheat,  and  disappears  rapidly 
toward  spring.  The  soil  of  the  valley  varies  greatly,  some  of  it  being 
a sandy  adobe,  and  in  other  places  a coarse  gravel.  There  is  often 
a sandy  loam  from  <S  to  15  inches  thick  overlying  this  coarse  gravel.  In 
the  northwestern  part  of  the  valley,  and  also  to  a less  extent  throughout 
the  park,  are  low  swampy  places  known  as  “sinks,”  in  which  large 
quantities  of  alkali  have  accumulated.  The  adjacent  land  is  usually  a 
pure  adobe,  which,  under  the  action  of  the  heat,  has  become  baked 
and  cracked.  The  irrigators  state  that  this  land  after  cultivation  be- 
comes the  easiest  to  till  and  requires  the  least  water. 

The  extent  of  arable  land  is  so  great  that  the  unregulated  water 
supply  is  insufficient  for  all  demands.  The  larger  canals  taking  water 
from  the  Rio  Grande  claim  many  times  the  volume  of  water  flowing  in 
that  stream,  and  ha^e  been  involved  in  protracted  and  expensive  law- 
suits concerning  their  respective  rights.  In  the  same  way  the  irrigators 


248 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


owning  ditches  taking  water  from  the  smaller  streams,  having  need  for 
more  water  than  is  available  at  all  times,  are  frequently  involved  in 
quarrels,  and  require  the  intervention  of  the  water  commissioners. 

The  principal  crops  raised  are  the  cereals,  grasses,  and  other  forage 
plants.  The  altitude  of  the  farming  lands  in  the  valley  being  so  great, 
from  7,500  to  7,700  feet,  the  prevailing  opinion  has  been  that,  on  account 
of  the  shortness  of  the  season,  corn  and  similar  crops  would  never  prove 
successful  to  any  extent.  Alfalfa  also  has  not  succeeded  in  all  places. 
Wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  the  vegetables  bear  abundantly,  and  attain 
a growth  which  it  is  claimed,  is  rarely  equaled  in  any  other  section  of 
the  country. 


IRRIGATION  PRACTICE. 

The  application  of  the  water  is  accomplished  by  flooding,  by  running 
it  in  furrows,  and  by  lateral  seepage  from  the  canals.  For  example,  on 
one  farm,  rectangular  in  shape,  the  main  ditch  and  its  branch  run  on 
the  west  and  north  sides.  From  a point  near  the  middle  of  the  west 
side  a branch  of  the  main  ditch  runs  diagonally  to  the  southeast  corner. 
Running  out  from  the  main  ditch  and  branches  at  distances  of  from 
one-lialf  to  three-fourths  of  a mile  apart  are  the  main  laterals.  From 
these  laterals  at  about  every  hundred  feet  the  “acequias”  or  sub- 
laterals  are  taken  out.  In  the  case  of  both  the  laterals  and  acequias 
the  general  direction  and  number  are  controlled  by  the  configuration  of 
the  ground. 

If  the  ground  is  gently  undulating,  the  acequias  follow  the  con- 
tour, if  not  too  sinuous,  thus  commanding  the  whole  field,  the  irrigator 
alway  keeping  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  water  should  rencli  its  desti- 
nation in  the  shortest  time  possible  with  the  greatest  head.  Small 
ridges  several  inches  in  height  are  made  from  the  acequias  to  lead 
the  water  over  the  land.  The  gates  having  all  been  raised  and  the 
ditches  filled,  the  irrigator  walks  along  the  acequia  and  cuts  a small 
opening  in  the  bank  just  below  the  ridge,  allowing  the  water  to  flood 
the  ground  for  some  distance  around.  He  then  passes  on  making 
another  opening  just  below,  and  so  on  throughout  the  field.  When 
the  ground  lias  been  flooded  to  a sufficient  depth  the  openings  are 
closed,  and  the  water  allowed  to  soak  into  the  soil.  The  silt  deposited 
from  the  turbid  waters  of  the  Rio  Grande  tends  to  enrich  the  ground 
and  to  prevent  exhaustion  of  soil. 

The  furrow  method  consists  simply  in  filling  the  nearly  parallel  fur- 
rows and  allowing  the  water  to  seep  laterally  to  the  roots  of  the  plants. 
The  number  of  irrigations  required  to  raise  a crop  seldom  exceeds  three, 
and  is  sometimes  only  two,  depending  largely  upon  the  character  of  the 
season.  Irrigation  by  lateral  seepage  from  the  ditches  is  commonly 
known  to  the  farmers  as  subirrigation.  On  old  land  crops  can  be  raised 
on  the  strips  of  ground  100  feet  wide  on  each  side  of  the  canal,  the  only 
irrigation  being  the  lateral  seepage  from  the  canal. 


U.  8.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  LXX 


Santa  Fe. 

Elevation,  7,02G  feet. 


a:  <*>  ^ gc  b 

7 ^ J 

■S  k ^ ^ 5 


^ >5 


o:  k \ vj 

k o O ly 

*0  O ^ Q 


5 inches 
4 inches. 
3 inches. 
2 inches. 
1 inch. 


Fort  Wingate. 
Elevation,  0,822  feet. 


Fort  Union. 
Elevation,  0,750  feet. 


Fort  Stanton. 
Elevation,  0,150  feet. 


Fort  Selden. 
Elevation,  4,250  feet. 


5 inches. 
4 inches. 
3 inches. 


2 inches. 

1 inch. 

5 inches. 

4 inches. 

3 inches. 

2 inches. 

1 inch. 

5 inches. 

4 inches. 

3 inches. 

2 inches. 

1 inch. 

5 inches. 

4 inches. 

3 inches. 

2 incites. 
1 inch. 


AVERAGE  MONTHLY  RAINFALL  AT  STATIONS  IN  THE  RIO  GRANDE  BASIN  IN  NEW  MEXICO. 


library 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.] 


IRRIGATION  IN  SAN  LUIS  VALLEY. 


249 


Irrigation  for  grass  and  meadow  lands  begins  about  tlie  1st  of  May,  and 
for  grain  and  potatoes  about  a month  later.  After  the  hay  is  cut  the 
ground  is  often  given  a second  watering  for  aftermath.  On  meadow 
land  three  good  floodings  are  required,  except  on  the  bottom  or 
lowlands,  where  two  are  used.  For  grain  there  are  three  waterings  on 
higher  land  and  two  on  the  lower  land.  Irrigation  ends  for  grain  and 
potatoes  from  the  first  to  the  middle  of  August. 

In  general,  the  larger  canals  in  this  valley  are  very  wide  and  shal- 
low, and  are  built  for  a considerable  portion  of  their  way  in  embank- 
ments raised  slightly  above  the  general  level  of  the  surrounding  ground, 
allowing  the  water  to  be  easily  conducted  out  upon  the  fields.  The  loss 
by  evaporation  and  seepage  at  such  places  is  in  consequence  very  great. 
The  advantage,  however,  of  this  method  of  construction  is  that  the  cost 
of  a shallow  canal  is  usually  less  than  of  one  having  a deep  cross  sec- 
tion, and  the  banks  are  less  liable  to  be  destroyed.  Wherever  practi- 
cable, however,  the  canals  have  been  partly  in  excavation  and  partly 
in  embankment. 

Almost  without  exception  the  head  works  of  the  canals,  including 
gates,  dams,  flood  weirs,  etc.,  are  constructed  of  wood,  and  are  of  a very 
temporary  character.  There  are  few  boxes  or  devices  employed  in  the 
valley  for  the  absolute  measurement  of  water,  since  the  canal  companies 
have  not  felt  the  necessity  of  accurately  measuring  the  amount  of  water 
given  to  the  consumer.  With  the  increase  of  the  number  of  canals  and 
in  sale  of  the  water  rights  there  is  a prospect,  however,  of  the  general 
adoption  of  some  form  of  measuring  box  or  weir  which  measures  water 
in  statutory  units. 

The  San  Luis  Valley  comprises  eight  of  the  water  districts  of  the 
State  of  Colorado,  these  districts  being  Nos.  20  to  27,  inclusive.  The 
administration  of  the  water  service  of  the  canals  lying  in  these  dis- 
tricts is  subject  to  the  control  of  the  water  commissioners.  The  rules 
governing  the  service  of  the  canals  are  enacted  by  the  companies  own- 
ing them.  Many  of  the  canals  were  built  by  irrigators,  but  the  largest, 
as  for  example  the  Citizens’,  Del  Norte,  Empire,  and  San  Luis  canals, 
were  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  selling  and  renting  water.  They 
usually  rent  water  for  a term  of  from  one  to  live  years,  the  lessee  sign- 
ing an  agreement  binding  himself  to  use  the  water  for  his  own  purposes 
only,  not  to  let  any  of  it  run  to  waste,  and  to  fulfill  other  requirements. 

Some  of  the  companies  agree  that  whenever,  through  scarcity  of 
water,  due  to  neglect,  they  can  not  deliver  the  amount  called  for  in  the 
agreement,  they  will  pay  the  damage  caused  thereby  to  the  irrigator. 
The  amount  charged  for  the  rental  of  water  has  been  fixed  by  the  com- 
panies, and  generally  varies  from  year  to  year.  With  the  Citizens’  and 
Del  Norte  canals  the  prices  have  ranged  from  80  cents  to  $1  per  statu- 
tory inch  per  year. 

The  farmers  seem  to  prefer  to  pay  a dollar  or  even  more  per  statutory 
inch  each  year  for  the  rental  of  water  rather  than  buy  a perpetual  right 


250 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


or  agreement  to  irrigate  perpetually  a certain  area  of  land.  This  is 
caused  by  poverty,  by  doubts  as  to  the  perpetuity  of  the  right,  or  by 
fears  that  the  company  furnishing  water  will  sell  more  than  it  is  able  to 
supply.  The  perpetual  use  of  1 inch  of  water  has  been  sold  for  from 
$5  to  $8,  and  in  one  case  perpetual  water  rights  for  160  acres  sold 
for  from  $800  to  $1,000,  the  rights  in  this  case  being  considered  to  be 
the  perpetual  use  of  2*88  cubic  feet  per  second  through  the  irrigating 
season.  These  rights  are  subject  to  an  assessment  each  year,  which  the 
companies  agree  shall  not  exceed  a specified  amount,  and  it  is  further 
agreed  by  certain  companies  that,  when  three-fourtlis  of  the  capacity 
of  the  canal  has  been  sold,  the  management  of  it  shall  be  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  water-users. 

The  duty  of  water  in  this  valley  has  been  a matter  of  considerable 
attention,  but  the  results  obtained  have  not  been  wholly  satisfactory,  on 
account  of  the  fact  that  there  were  no  devices  in  general  use  for  the  ab- 
solute measurement  of  water.  In  a small  portion  of  the  valley  there 
is  considered  to  be  what  is  commonly  known  as  a “ standard”  duty  of 
water,  viz:  1-44  cubic  feet  per  second  to  86  acres,  or  1 cubic  foot  per 
second  to  55 -5  acres.  The  farmers  taking  water  from  the  Del  jSorte  and 
Citizens’  canals  buy  or  rent  it  on  the  basis  of  from  4 to  1 statute  inch 
for  each  acre.  This  latter  figure  gives  the  extremely  low  duty  of  only 
35  or  40  acres  per  cubic  foot. 

In  fact,  the  duty  of  water  varies  very  widely,  ou  account  of  the  differ- 
ences in  the  character  of  the  soil,  kind  of  crop,  the  length  of  time  the 
land  has  been  irrigated,  and  the  intelligence  of  the  irrigator.  The  seep- 
age of  water  through  different  soils  is  so  widely  different  that  the  irri- 
gator can  not  in  many  cases  estimate  what  portion  of  the  water  passing 
through  the  headgate  on  his  lateral  really  reaches  the  field.  To  illus- 
trate the  difference  of  opinion  or  of  practice,  it  may  be  well  to  cite  the 
case  of  a manager  of  one  of  the  great  farms  of  the  valley,  who  asserted 
that  certain  tracts  required  thirteen  floodings,  while  others  required 
only  one,  or  possibly  two,  to  produce  the  same  result. 

A few  farmers  who  have  been,  perhaps,  more  careful  in  the  use  of 
water,  and  have  considered  the  subject  thoroughly,  believe  that  1 statu- 
tory inch  is  ample  for  2 acres,  and  state  that  experience  has  shown  that  80 
inches  of  water  purchased  from  a canal  has  not  only  watered  160  acres, 
but  that  there  has  been  a surplus  for  use  on  other  ground.  Some  of 
the  canal  companies  in  selling  water  by  the  acre  calculate  at  the  rate  of 
§ of  a miner’s  inch  to  the  acre,  or  a duty  of  about  60  acres  to  the  second- 
foot. 

There  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  increased  duty  of  water  from  one  year  to 
another;  everywhere  this  question,  when  asked,  has  been  answered  in 
the  affirmative,  and  it  was  often  stated  that  during  the  second  year  of 
cultivation  the  land  required  only  about  three-fourths  as  much  water 
as  during  the  first  year.  The  duty  continues  to  increase,  but  not  as 
rapidly  as  at  first,  until  the  limit  is  reached,  every  portion  of  the  ground 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  RIO  GRANDE  AT  DEL  NORTE,  COLORADO. 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  LXXI 


LIBRMW 

0,5 


NEWELL.] 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  TAOS  VALLEY. 


251 


being  thoroughly  soaked.  The  results  of  this  are  easily  observed,  for 
in  tracts  of  land  that  have  been  irrigated  continuously  for  a number  of 
years,  the  low  portions  of  the  held  have  turned  into  swamp.  On  land 
that  has  been  irrigated  for  four  years,  it  is  asserted  that  on  the  fifth 
year  a crop  can  easily  be  raised  without  any  irrigation,  except  that  from 
the  seepage  from  the  ditches. 

THE  TAOS  DISTRICT  OF  THE  RIO  GRANDE. 

South  of  the  Colorado  district,  and  immediately  adjoining  it,  on  the 
east  side  of  the  river,  is  a portion  of  the  Rio  Grande  Basin,  which  may 
be  called  for  convenience  the  Taos  District,  from  the  name  of  its  prin- 
cipal valley.  Tliis  division  includes  the  streams  flowing  westerly  from 
the  group  of  mountains  of  which  the  Taos  Range  is  of  chief  importance. 
The  topography  of  this  division  is  peculiar,  and  distinguishes  it  sharply 
from  that  of  the  San  Luis  Park  to  the  north.  The  surface  rocks  con- 
sist largely  of  soft  clays,  sandstones,  and  gravels,  underlaid  by  a broad 
sheet  of  lava,  which  appears  on  the  sides  of  the  canyons  along  the  Rio 
Grande  and  its  tributaries.  These  easily  eroded  deposits  are  deeply  cut 
by  occasional  storms,  and  loose  material  is  carried  by  every  flood  to  the 
Rio  Grande,  causing  its  waters  to  be  turbid  and  at  times  overloaded. 

The  streams  leaving  their  mountain  canyons  flow  for  a time  over  this 
lava  sheet  with  gentle  current,  depositing  much  of  the' material  brought 
down  from  the  heights  and  forming  alluvial  plains;  then,  as  they  ap- 
proach the  Rio  Grande,  they  reach  the  point  where  the  lava  has  been 
worn  away,  and  with  swift  current  flow  rapidly  downward  into  narrow 
canyons  to  join  the  main  river. 

The  principal  valleys  in  this  division  from  north  to  south  are  the 
Cerros,  Rio  Colorado,  San  Cristobal,  Arroyo  Hondo,  and  Taos,  which 
will  be  described  in  turn  from  north  to  south. 

At  Cerros  there  is  no  distinct  valley  or  stream,  but  several  small 
streams,  viz,  the  Latir,  Rito  Priiuero,  and  Rite  del  Medio,  are  taken 
by  ditches  and  brought  into  one  channel,  being  caught  just  after  they 
emerge  from  the  Cerros  Mountains.  The  combined  flow  does  not  exceed 
20  second-feet.  The  amount  of  irrigable  land  is  largely  in  excess  of  the 
present  water  supply,  for  a strip  extending  from  the  mountains  to  the 
Rio  Grande,  a width  of  some  8 miles  and  running  parallel  to  the  river 
for  at  least  15  miles,  can  easily  be  brought  under  ditch.  The  land  to 
which  water  has  been  brought  is  scattered  and  irregular  in  outline,  but 
there  are  estimated  to  be  in  all  about  960  acres  under  ditch,  and  nearly 
all  of  this  is  farmed  to  a certain  extent.  By  a proper  system  of  stor- 
age, such  as  is  possible  on  these  mountain  streams,  the  greater  part  of 
all  this  area  might  be  brought  under  cultivation. 

The  first  valley  south  of  the  Cerros  region  is  that  through  which  Col- 
orado Creek  flows.  This  valley  is  about  4 miles  long  and  contains,- it 
is  estimated,  about  1,800  acres  adapted  to  irrigation,  fully  1,500  acres  of 
this  land  being  under  ditch;  only  a portion,  however,  is  annually  under 


252 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


crop.  The  water  supply  is  derived  from  two  forks  of  the  stream,  which 
join  above  the  place  at  which  water  is  taken  out.  It  is  estimated  that 
nearly  half  of  the  water  of  Colorado  Creek  is  taken  across  a divide 
and  carried  to  the  mines  at  Elizabethtown.  In  the  valley  the  stream 
was  flowing  at  the  rate  of  23  second-feet  early  in  March,  1889. 

South  of  Colorado  Creek  and  between  it  and  the  Arroyo  Hondo  is  a 
tract  of  land  8 to  10  miles  wide,  extending  from  the  mountains  to  the 
Eio  Grande.  The  greater  portion  of  this  is  covered  with  timber,  heavy 
among  the  foothills  but  growing  thinner  away  from  the  mountains. 
Several  small  creeks  whose  waters  are  used  in  irrigation  cross  this 
tract,  the  largest  of  these  being  the  San  Cristobal,  the  waters  of  which 
are  used  in  a small  valley  containing  about  1,800  acres  of  land.  This 
is  the  smallest  and  least  important  of  the  valleys  between  the  Eio 
Grande  and  the  Taos  Mountains,  being  occupied  by  a few  ranches. 
The  bench  portion  of  the  San  Cristobal  Valley,  containing  in  all  about 
800  acres,  may  be  considered  as  irrigable  land;  of  this  about  400  acres 
are  under  ditch,  and  the  rest  could  be  easily  watered.  Hot  more  than 
250  acres  are  actually  tilled  or  used  as  hay  fields.  The  stream  is  very 
small,  and  does  not  exceed  8 second-feet  at  ordinary  stages,  so  that  it 
is  doubtful  if  more  could  be  done  with  the  present  water  supply. 

The  Arroyo  Hondo  is  the  next  stream  in  order  south  of  the  San 
Cristobal.  The  valley  through  which  it  flows  is  from  one-half  to  three- 
quarters  of  a mile  wide  for  the  distance  of  about  4 miles,  then  it 
contracts  and  again  opens  at  short  intervals.  This  valley  is  for  the 
greater  part  of  its  course  fully  500  feet  below  the  general  level  of  the 
surrounding  country.  The  two  main  ditches  which  furnish  water  for 
the  tilled  land  are  taken  out  about  one-half  mile  up  in  the  canyon  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  river.  This  stream,  as  measured  on  February  26, 
1889,  above  these  ditches,  was  flowing  at  the  rate  of  17  second-feet,  and 
on  November  5,  1890,  at  about  13  second-feet  at  a point  below  Frasier’s 
Mill. 

The  land  in  the  valley,  in  all  from  1,200  to  1,500  acres,  not  including 
the  gorge  at  its  upper  or  the  canyon  at  its  lower  end,  maybe  classed  as 
irrigable.  The  main  ditches  being  taken  out,  one  on  each  side,  nearly 
all  the  land  may  be  said  to  be  under  ditch.  A great  portion  of  this 
area  is  in  crop,  and  yet  it  is  claimed  that  but  little  over  one-fourth  of 
the  total  water  supply  is  used. 

South  of  the  Arroyo  Hondo  is  the  principal  valley  of  this  division — the 
Taos  Valley — surpassing  all  the  others  in  water  facilities  and  area  of 
crops  cultivated.  The  term  “Taos  Valley”  is  apt  to  give  a false  im- 
pression, for  the  true  valley  of  the  Taos  Creek  is  but  a shallow  and 
rather  narrow  cut  in  the  lava  extending  from  the  west  side  of  the  Eio 
Grande  nearly  to  the  mountains.  The  name  is  given,  however,  to  the 
lava  mesa,  about  12  miles  long  from  north  to  south  and  about  8 miles 
wide,  lying  between  the  Eio  Grande  and  Taos  Eange  and  having  a 
large  population,  mostly  Mexican.  Water  for  irrigation  is  obtained 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  RIO  GRANDE  AT  EMBUDO,  NEW  MEXICO. 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 

10  15  SO  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  2i 


library 
OF  THE 

RSlTY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.] 


WATER  SUPPLY  OF  TAOS  VALLEY. 


253 


from  Taos  Creek  anil  its  branches,  and  from  the  Arroyo  Hondo  and  Seco. 
The  altitude,  nearly  7,000  feet,  is  too  high  for  many  kinds  of  fruit,  but 
large  quantities  of  grain  are  raised. 

The  amount  of  land  in  the  Taos  Valley  upon  which  water  could  be 
brought  is  very  large,  certainly  as  much  as  50,000  acres,  and  probably 
even  more.  The  most  reliable  information  indicates  about  15,000  acres 
actually  under  ditch.  This  acreage  is  difficult  to  estimate,  as  the  land 
lies  in  very  irregular  patches,  often  isolated,  and  having  an  irregular 
frontage  on  a stream  or  ditch.  On  account  of  scarcity  of  water  not 
more  than  one-thiril  of  the  land  under  ditch  is  annually  tilled,  the  sta- 
tistics for  the  census  year  1889  showing  5,500  acres  of  crops  raised  by 
irrigation. 

The  Taos  Range  to  the  east  is  well  timbered  with  pine  and  spruce, 
and  contains  deposits  of  gold,  silver,  and  other  minerals,  which  are 
worked  in  a small  way,  development  of  mining  industries,  however, 
being  retarded  by  the  lack  of  shipping  facilities. 

The  rainfall  in  the  valley  is  estimated  to  be  about  16  inches,  the 
greater  portion  falling  during  August.  There  is  no  economy  of  water, 
large  amounts  being  wasted  on  account  of  the  numbers  of  small  ditches 
running  parallel  with  each  other  and  taking  the  water  from  the  river 
in  the  most  wasteful  manner.  In  place  of  two  good  high-line  ditches, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  creek,  so  built  as  to  carry  the  entire  summer 
flow  of  the  stream,  there  are  several  small  acequias  built  by  the  early 
Mexican  settlers  in  such  a way  as  apparently  to  meander  through  the 
land  without  any  system  or  definite  order. 

Three  principal  streams  belong  to  the  Taos  Creek  system,  and  in  fact 
form  the  Taos  Creek,  as  this  name  is  given  only  to  the  resulting  stream. 
Their  names  are  Pueblo  Creek,  Ferdinand,  and  Rio  Grande  de  Taos. 
From  gaugings  made  by  the  hydrographers  of  this  Survey  below  the 
junction  of  these  creeks  it  appears  that  their  winter  flow  does  not  exceed 
50  second-feet.  This  amount  is  increased  in  the  spring  by  melting  snow, 
but  it  is  doubtful  if  there  is  more  water  during  summer  irrigation,  and 
it  is  even  probable  that  at  that  time  the  supply  is  usually  less.  During 
the  last  ten  years  two  droughts  are  reported  to  have  occurred,  and  it  is 
asserted  that  the  Taos  Valley  for  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years  has 
been  subject  to  periodic  droughts  at  intervals  of  about  three  years. 

Pueblo  Creek  on  the  north  enters  the  valley  a short  distance  above 
the  ancient  Indian  pueblo  of  Taos.  The  Indians  residing  here  have 
taken  out  two  acequias  above  their  pueblo,  one  on  each  side  of  the  creek. 
The  largest  ditch  taken  from  this  creek  has  a bottom  width  of  4 feet, 
anil  runs  towards  the  town  of  Taos,  its  surplus  water  finally  emptying 
into  Taos  Creek.  Pueblo  Creek  carried  on  February  27, 1889,  about  13 
second-feet.  Its  regular  summer  flow  is  not  entirely  utilized. 

Lucero  Creek  is  a tributary  to  Pueblo  Creek,  coming  in  from  the  north 
or  right-hand  side,  and  watering  the  land  lying  between  it  and  the  Pueblo 
Creek,  as  well  as  a tract  of  land  extending  2 miles  to  the  north  of  the 


254 


HYDROGRAPHY  OP  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


creek.  The  Seco  is  another  tributary  of  Pueblo  Creek,  its  waters,  how- 
ever, being  taken  out  entirely  during  the  irrigating  season,  so  these 
waters  do  not  at  that  time  reach  Pueblo  Creek.  Between  the  Lucero 
and  the  Seco  is  a large  tract  of  land  that  could  be  brought  under  culti- 
vation by  high-line  ditches  taking  water  from  tributaries  of  the  Arroyo 
Hondo,  Lucero,  and  the  Pueblo  Creeks. 

Ferdinand  Creek  issues  from  a narrow  canyon  about  3£  miles  above 
Taos,  where  three  or  four  small  ditches  or  acequias  are  taken  from  it. 
The  discharge  of  this  stream  on  February  27,  1889,  was  only  3 second- 
feet;  its  summer  flow  was  reported,  however,  to  be  considerably  larger. 
Several  years  ago,  during  a dry  season,  the  irrigators  having  land  de- 
pendent upon  this  creek  constructed  a small  reservoir  at  a favorable 
point  several  miles  up  the  canyon,  but  the  embankment  was  washed 
out  before  the  end  of  that  year. 

The  Rio  Grande  de  Taos,  which  lies  furthest  to  the  south,  has  one 
tributary,  known  as  the  Rio  Chiquito,  which  joins  it  2 miles  below  the 
point  where  it  enters  the  valley.  Two  small  ditches  are  taken  from 
this  latter,  while  from  the  Rio  Grande  de  Taos  ten  or  more  are  taken 
out  at  short  intervals  from  each  other.  During  the  summer  season, 
when  the  farmers  are  using  the  water,  there  is  little,  if  any,  left  flow- 
ing in  the  stream.  The  Rio  Grande  de  Taos  on  February  23, 1889,  car- 
ried 17  second-feet  below  its  junction  with  the  Rio  Chiquito.  By 
storage  in  the  headwaters  of  this  creek  a large  tract  of  land  could  be 
irrigated,  an  amount  depending  mainly  upon  the  capacity  of  the  reser- 
voir. 

Below  Cordova  the  Taos  River  flows  through  a canyon  to  join  the 
Rio  Grande.  Along  its  course  below  the  town  one  or  two  acequias  are 
taken  out,  but  a large  portion  of  the  water  is  not  utilized.  The  popu- 
lation of  the  valley  is  about  7,000,  principally  Mexicans  and  Pueblo 
Indians,  these  latter  owning  a tract  of  land  a Spanish  league  square. 
They  are  peaceable  and  industrious,  making  better  agriculturists  ap- 
parently than  their  Mexican  neighbors. 

Wheat,  corn,  oats,  barley,  beaus,  potatoes,  pumpkins,  and  other 
vegetables  are  raised  in  the  valley,  and  recently  apple  trees  have  been 
planted  with  success.  Alfalfa  can  be  cut  three  times  a year,  averaging 
1£  tons  per  acre  at  each  cutting.  The  shipping  facilities  to  and  from 
this  valley  are  very  poor,  the  nearest  railroad  station,  Embudo,  being 
about  30  miles  away. 

Wheat  is  the  most  important  crop  grown  in  this  valley,  and  flouring 
mills  have  been  built  at  the  Ranchos  de  Taos.  Before  the  present  rail- 
ways were  constructed  Taos  was  an  important  flour -producing  center 
for  the  surrounding  towns,  and  even  at  present  flour  is  sent  by  wagon 
or  pack  train  to  local  mining  camps  or  to  be  reshipped  by  railroad. 

The  Mexican  system  of  threshing,  that  of  treading  out  the  wheat  by 
goats  or  other  animals,  has  led  the  Americans  and  better  class  of  Mex- 
icans to  use  other  flour  even  when  it  is  more  expensive.  An  objection 


NEWELL.] 


IRRIGATION  METHODS  IN  TAOS  VALLEY. 


255 


to  this  mode  of  threshing  is  that  the  wheat  when  gathered  from  the 
ground  contains  pebbles  about  the  size  of  the  grains.  It  is  impossible 
to  separate  these  pebbles  from  the  wheat  by  winnowing  on  account  of 
their  weight,  and  they  are  consequently  ground  with  the  wheat,  making 
the  flour  somewhat  gritty.  Oats  rank  next  to  wheat  in  importance, 
and  yield  large  crops.  Beans  and  peas  come  next,  while  corn  is  but 
little  grown,  and  then  almost  entirely  by  the  Indians.  Of  late  years 
the  bean  crop  has  been  much  damaged  by  the  attacks  of  insects,  amount- 
ing at  times  even  to  the  loss  of  the  crop. 

Irrigation  by  flooding  is  the  system  practiced  throughout  the  Taos  val- 
ley. In  each  field,  after  plowing  and  smoothing,  small  banks  of  earth  are 
thrown  up  with  the  plow  or  spade,  dividing  the  field  into  a number  of  rec- 
tangular divisions  called  squares.  To  irrigate  this  land  a small  opening 
is  made  in  the  main  ditch,  or  lateral,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  water  is 
allowed  to  flow  into  the  first  division  or  square,  from  which  are  openings 
into  the  next  square,  and  so  on,  the  water  flowing  from  square  to  square 
over  a large  portion  of  the  field. 

“Banking”  is  but  a variation  of  the  flooding  system,  the  water  being 
retained  as  long  as  thought  necessary  in  one  square  before  it  is  allowed 
to  flow  into  the  next.  The  advocates  of  this  system  claim  that  by 
checking  the  flow  in  this  manner  the  silt  is  deposited  evenly  over  the 
whole  surface,  while  by  the  former  method  it  can  be  deposited  only 
in  more  favorable  places.  The  land  is  also  more  thoroughly  soaked 
with  water,  and  better  results  are  therefore  claimed.  There  is  a con- 
stantly increasing  use  of  fertilizers,  such  as  corral  scrapings  and  barn- 
yard manure,  and  better  results  are  obtained  after  their  use. 

Each  community  in  New  Mexico  has  its  own  customs,  many  of  these 
dating  as  far  back  as  the  second  conquest  by  the  Spaniards.  Thus,  iu 
communities  often  but  a few  miles  apart,  there  is  considerable  difference 
in  the  details  of  water  administration.  Taos  has  the  major-domo 
system,  which  prevails,  with  various  modifications,  throughout  New 
Mexico. 

Every  spring  one  of  the  irrigators  is  elected  by  popular  vote  to  the 
position  of  major-domo.  His  powers  are  wide  and  varied;  he  not  only 
acts  judicially,  but  he  has  power  to  see  that  his  decisions  are  obeyed. 
The  ditch  is  regarded  as  common  property  of  all  who  hold  land  along  it. 
In  the  early  spring  every  man  who  takes  water  from  the  ditch  meets 
the  major-domo  at  the  tail  of  the  ditch  and  is  assigned  to  his  task  by 
the  major-domo,  who  measures  off  the  sections  and  assigns  them  at 
random.  A man  is  required  to  clean,  repair,  and  put  his  section  in 
perfect  order,  the  major-domo  alone  being  exempt  from  ditch  work,  but 
receiving  no  salary. 

The  distribution  and  assignment  of  water  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
the  major-domo.  The  water  is  given  to  each  irrigator  for  a certain 
period,  and  the  decision  rests  entirely  with  the  major-domo  as  to  the 
length  of  time  during  which  he  shall  have  the  use  of  the  water.  There 


256 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


is  no  apparent  rule  as  to  the  necessity  of  employing  the  water  to  best 
advantage,  the  only  requirement  being  that  no  irrigator  shall  overrun 
the  time  allotted  to  him.  There  are  complaints  from  both  Americans 
and  Mexicans  of  partiality  shown  by  the  major-domo,  and  it  is  easy  to 
conceive  into  how  demoralized  a condition  a corrupt  major-domo  might 
bring  a community,  especially  in  times  of  scarcity  of  water. 

The  Mexicans  in  the  Taos  Yalley  and  the  Indians  are  reported  to 
have  an  agreement,  dating  as  far  back  as  the  second  conquest,  by  the 
terms  of  which  the  Indians  were  to  have  full  and  exclusive  use  of  the 
water  of  Pueblo  Creek  for  four  days  in  the  week.  The  Indians  also 
allowed  certain  Mexican  settlers  on  the  Arroyo  Seco  to  take  from  the 
Lucero,  a tributary  of  Pueblo  Creek,  as  much  water  as  would  flow 
through  an  old-fashioned  cart  or  “ car r eta”  wheel.  Both  of  these  rules 
are  said  to  be  observed  even  at  the  present  time. 

Summary  of  land. 


Locality. 

Irrigable. 

Under 

ditch. 

Cropped 
in  1889. 

Acres. 
100,  000 

Acres. 

960 

Acres. 

540 

1,800 

800 

1,500 

400 

800 

160 

1,500 
65,  000 

1,  200 
15, 000 

600 

4,000 

Total 

169, 100 

19,  060 

6, 100 

In  the  case  of  irrigable  land  the  figures  are  probably  much  too  small 
iu  the  cases  of  Taos  and  Cerros.  The  water  supply  is  comparatively 
small,  and  the  amount  of  land  is  so  vastly  in  excess  of  the  available 
water  that  it  is  not  a matter  of  great  importance. 

TRES  PIEDRAS  MESA. 

The  Tres  Piedras  Mesa  may  be  taken  as  including  all  the  country 
west  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  opposite  the  Taos  Valley,  extending  from 
San  Antonio  Creek  ou  the  north  to  the  Black  Mesa,  just  above  Es- 
panola,  on  the  south.  This  vast  extent  of  practically  level  land  is  nearly 
all  underlaid  with  lava.  There  are  several  townships  of  good  land  on 
top  of  the  lava,  but  water  could  be  brought  to  it  only  at  great  expense, 
as  a ditch  from  the  Alamosa  or  San  Antonio  River  must  pass  through 
lava  rock  for  a great  part  of  its  length.  The  Taos  Yalley  Ditch  Com- 
pany was  organized  to  reclaim  this  land,  but  their  work  is  now  ap- 
parently at  a standstill,  they  having  built  a ditch  about  40  feet  wide 
from  the  Alamosa  to  the  San  Antonio,  dammed  the  latter  stream  just 
south  of  Antonito,  and  taken  out  a ditch  40  feet  wide  from  it.  In  May, 
1889,  this  ditch  was  carrying  some  500  second-feet  to  the  end  of  the 
excavation,  when  the  water  was  allowed  to  escape  and  to  find  its  way 
into  the  Rio  Grande  Canyon  the  best  it  could. 


NEWELL.] 


SEDIMENT  MEASUREMENTS  AT  EMBUDO. 


257 


EMBUDO  ^GAUGING  STATION.  % 

In  the  lower  end  of  the  canyon,  between  the  Tres  Piedras  Mesa  and 
the  Taos  Valley,  is  the  Embudo  gauging  station  of  the  Geological  Sur- 
vey, located  at  that  point  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  total  dis- 
charge of  the  river  below  the  Colorado  divisions  and  above  the 
Espanola  Valley.  The  results  of  the  measurements  at  this  point 
are  shown  on  the  tabulations  appended,  and  also  on  the  diagram,  PI. 
lxxii.  This  shows  a progressive  increase  in  the  amount  of  water 
from  1880  to  1891,  the  spring  of  the  latter  year  being  marked  by  a large 
flood  of  short  duration.  This  flood  can  also  be  seen  on  the  diagram, 
PI.  uxxi,  for  the  Del  Norte  station,  shown  there  a few  days  earlier  and 
far  less  in  amount.  At  Del  Norte  the  spring  flood  of  1891  did  not 
reach  the  maximum  of  the  preceding  year,  but  at  Embudo  it  far  overtops 
that  of  1890. 

Observations  of  the  amount  of  sediment,  as  described  in  the  pre- 
vious annual  reports,  were  carried  on  for  a time  at  Embudo,  and  the 
results  are  shown  graphically  on  Fig.  224,  giving  the  observations  from 
January  14  to  April  15,  1889.  In  the  upper  part  of  this  diagram  the 
irregular  line  shows  the  fluctuations  in  the  height  of  water,  due  proba- 
bly to  changes  of  temperature.  The  observations  during  January  and 
February  were  made  a number  of  times  a day  with  great  care  in  order 
to  show  this  constant  fluctuation  of  the  height  of  the  stream.  In 
March  and  April,  however,  they  were  made  only  twice  a day,  so  that 
the  diurnal  variations  do  not  appear. 

Thelower  part  of  the  diagram  shows  the  proportion  of  sediment  in  the 
water  on  those  days.  The  dotted  line  connects  the  mean  observations 
of  samples  of  water  taken  from  near  the  bottom  of  the  stream,  the  ob- 
servations themselves  being  shown  by  the  small  circles.  The  results 
of  the  sediment  determinations  made  from  samples  of  water  taken  near 
the  surface  are  shown  by  the  small  crosses,  the  solid  line  connecting  the 
mean  of  these  whenever  more  than  one  was  taken  at  a time.  The  dia- 
gram exhibits  the  wide  range  of  results  obtained  from  samples  taken  at 
the  same  point,  at  the  same  time,  and  under  circumstances  precisely 
identical.  This  is  especially  noticeable  when  the  stream  is  laden  with 
silt,  check  samples  at  that  time  differing  greatly  in  the  percentage  of 
solid  matter. 

This  lack  of  agreement  among  samples  taken  at  times  when  the  river 
is' loaded  with  sediment  is  rather  to  be  expected,  from  the  fact  that  the 
water  is  moving  with  that  peculiar  boiling  motion  characteristic  of  floods, 
and,  as  can  be  seen  by  the  difference  in  color  of  the  water,  all  parts  are 
not  equally  loaded.  The  diagram  also  shows  that  on  the  approach  of 
the  spring  floods  the  proportion  of  sediment  increases,  but  drops  off  rap- 
idly, either  by  dilution  or  by  exhaustion  of  the  supply  of  fine  material 
accumulated  during  periods  of  low  water  and  sluggish  flow. 

The  diagram  shows  the  proportion  of  sediment  by  means  of  two  scales, 
that  of  grammes  per  cubic  foot,  as  given  by  the  horizontal  lines,  and  of 
12  geol.,  pt.  2 17 


Parts  by  rretyhjt  in  loo.ooo. 


258 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS 


parts  by  weight  in  one  hundred  thousand  shown  by  figures  on  each 
edge  of  the  diagram.  During  April  the  proportion  of  sediment  in  the 
surface  samples,  as  shown  by  the  small  crosses,  increases  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  this  part  of  the  diagram  overlaps  that  showing  the  height  of 
water.  This  diagram  can  be  compared  with  that  for  sediment  at  El 
I aso,  given  on  PI.  lxxiv  of  the  last  annual  report.  The  greater  amount 
of  sediment  at  that  latter  point  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  the  Embudo 
diagram  the  height  only  allows  representation  of  65  parts  of  sediment 
by  weight  in  100,000,  while  the  smallest  division  of  the  El  Paso  diagram 
gives  100  parts  in  100,000. 


JAN  FEB  MARCH.  APL. 


Fig.  224. — Diagram  illustrating  sediment  measurements  at  Embudo,  New  Mexico. 


ESPANOLA  VALLEY. 

South  of  the  Taos  district  and  the  Tres  Piedras  mesa  is  a large  val- 
ley lying  along  the  Rio  Grande  and  containing  an  area  of  agricultural 
land  so  great  that  it  may  be  said  to  constitute  a separate  trunk-stream 
division  of  the  Rio  Grande  system,  known  as  the  Espanola  Valley. 
Before  entering  the  valley  the  Rio  Grande  flows  through  a canyon 


rrtxght.  in.  loo.ooo. 


NEWELL.] 


ESPANOLA  VALLEY. 


259 


whose  walls  rise  somewhat  abruptly  to  the  height  of  800  to  1,000  feet. 
Throughout  this  distance  the  river  is  of  a torrential  character  and  the 
process  of  down  cutting  is  still  active.  Owing  to  the  general  rocky 
character  of  the  river’s  bed,  this  portion  of  the  river  is  suited  for  the 
construction  of  headworks  for  a canal,  which  would  become  a high-line 
ditch  farther  down. 

About  three  miles  below  Embudo  Station  the  canyon  walls  retreat 
abruptly,  especially  on  the  west  side,  giving  room  for  a border  of  irreg- 
ular hills  between  the  higher  mesa  walls  and  the  flood  plain  adjacent  to 
the  river.  This  is  the  beginning  of  the  Espanola  Valley,  which  ex- 
tends to  White  Rock  Canyon,  about  25  miles  or  more  below.  About 
two  and  one-lialf  miles  below  Embudo  railroad  station  the  first  acequia, 
of  capacity  of  about  10  second-feet,  is  taken  out  on  the  east  side  of  the 
river.  To  divert  the  water  into  it  a rude  dam  of  stones  and  brush  has 
been  constructed  by  the  Mexican  farmers  living  at  La  Joya. 

The  river  assumes  a different  character  on  emerging  from  the  can- 
yon, the  velocity  being  diminished  and  sediment  deposited,  forming  a 
sandy  channel  and  shifting  banks.  In  this  portion  of  the  river  head- 
works  of  canals  can  be  maintained  with  difficulty  owing  to  the  insta- 
bility of  the  foundations.  About  three-quarters  of  a mile  below  the 
mouth  of  the  canyon  is  the  Mexican  village  of  La  Joya,  which  stretches 
irregularly  along  the  road  for  nearly  a mile.  Almost  all  of  the  low- 
lying  land  is  under  ditch  and  cultivation,  as  is  the  general  rule  through- 
out the  Espanola  Valley  wherever  the  land  is  of  good  quality. 

The  manner  of  applying  water  to  the  soil  is  very  simple.  The  land  is 
laid  off  in  squares,  and  the  water  drawn  on  them  in  most  cases  directly 
from  the  main  ditch,  though  in  some  cases  short  laterals  at  right  angles 
to  the  main  ditch  are  used.  Several  thrifty  orchards  of  apple  and 
peach  trees  are  to  be  seen  at  La  Joya,  but  they  were  small  in  extent, 
generally  not  more  than  one-third  of  an  acre. 

From  the  mouth  of  the  canyon  to  La  Joya  church  there  is  scarcely 
any  land  that  could  be  brought  under  cultivation  by  a high-line  ditch, 
but  below  the  church  is  a small  plateau  or  bench,  about  75  feet  above 
the  river,  which  might  be  brought  under  ditch,  although  much  grading 
would  be  required  in  preparing  the  land  for  the  water. 

About  3 miles  below  La  Joya  is  San  Juan,  an  Indian  pueblo,  the 
thrift  and  prosperity  of  which,  as  exhibited  by  the  fields  and  adobe 
houses,  is  notable.  From  San  Juan  to  Espanola  the  lowlands  are 
under  ditch,  and  in  the  main  are  cultivated,  but  the  soil  appears  poorer 
or  the  cultivation  worse  than  at  San  Juan,  and  there  are  a few  deserted 
houses.  In  the  valley,  as  a whole,  the  land  is  irrigated  only  upon  the 
lowest  level,  and  a large  tract  on  the  east  side  of  the  river  near  La 
Joya  and  Alcalde,  although  smooth  and  admirably  adapted  for  irriga- 
tion, is  unused.  A high-line  ditch  was  projected,  to  be  taken  out  of  the 
river  below  Embudo  railroad  station,  which  was  to  take  in  this  land  and 
run  as  far  south  as  the  mesa  beyond  Santa  Fe  Creek.  The  men  inter- 


260 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


ested  in  the  scheme  are  reputed  to  have  obtained  a small  sum  of  money 
and  then  left  without  accomplishing  anything  in  the  way  of  construc- 
tion. Not  more  than  one-third  of  the  irrigable  land  in  this  portion  of 
the  valley  is  actually  under  ditch. 

About  5 miles  above  the  town  of  Espanola  the  Chama  River  enters 
the  Rio  Grande,  the  muddy  water  brought  by  this  stream  changing 
the  character  of  the  river  deposits.  Above  the  junction  these  are 
sandy,  but  below  the  Chama  they  are  of  a more  clayey  nature  and  in 
several  places  the  river  has  divided  into  two  or  more  channels.  Just 
below  Espanola  the  Santa  Cruz  Creek  enters  the  river  from  the  east, 
discharging  in  March,  1889,  about  15-second  feet,  but  carrying  a larger 
quantity  2 miles  above  Santa  Cruz  pueblo  and  the  Mesilla  acequia. 
This  acequia  runs  about  5 miles  down  the  Espanola  Valley  to  and  past 
the  village  of  Mesilla. 

Just  below  Mesilla  are  the  remains  of  a very  large  ditch,  which  was 
dug  about  forty  years  ago.  It  extended  from  below  Espanola  to  below 
the  Huerfano  Butte,  a distance  of  from  8 to  10  miles.  The  owner  ap- 
parently abandoned  it,  and  the  headworks  were  soon  washed  away,  so 
that  for  many  years  there  has  been  no  water  in  the  ditch.  From  the 
Huerfano  Butte  to  San  Ildefonso  Pueblo,  a distance  of  about  three- 
quarters  of  a mile,  is  little  or  no  irrigation,  and  no  very  readily  irri- 
gable land,  though  there  are  traces  of  old  ditches,  probably  the  end  of 
the  old  ditch  mentioned  above. 

At  San  Ildefonso,  in  the  southern  end  of  the  Espanola  Valley,  the 
waters  of  Pojuaque  Creek  are  used  for  irrigating  several  hundred  acres, 
as  well  as  for  lands  along  this  creek  as  far  up  as  the  village  of  Pojuaque. 
The  stream  was  flowing  about  20  second  feet  when  measured  in  March, 
1889.  The  San  Ildefonso  Indians  have  a large  body  of  land  under  cul- 
tivation between  their  pueblo,  the  river,  and  White  Rock  Canyon,  all  of 
which  is  served  by  Pojuaque  water. 

Only  a small  portion,  perhaps  10  per  cent,  of  the  water  of  the  Rio 
Grande  is  taken  out  in  the  Espanola  Valley,  and  much  of  the  irrigation 
of  the  valley  is  done  with  water  from  the  creeks  which  flow  into  the 
river  from  both  sides.  The  use  of  this  water  in  preference  to  that  of 
the  Rio  Grande  is  due  to  the  greater  ease  with  which  it  can  be  brought 
•on  the  land  and  to  the  difficulty  of  constructing  and  maintaining  head- 
works  on  the  river. 

The  population  of  the  valley  is  almost  entirely  Mexican  and  Indian, 
and,  while  nearly  all  of  the  easily  irrigable  low-lying  lands  are  under 
irrigation,  it  is  apparent  that  the  productiveness  could  be  much  in- 
creased by  better  cultivation,  with  improved  farming  implements  and 
better  management.  The  Indians  cultivate  only  enough  land  to  supply 
their  needs,  and  thus  have  large  areas  of  fertile  lands  untilled.  The 
ditches  are  all  small  and  are  owned  and  maintained  by  the  various 
communities.  The  lands  of  this  valley  as  a rule  have  a little  alkali, 
but  not  enough  to  seriously  interfere  with  agriculture.  There  appeared 


NEWELL.] 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CHAMA  DISTRICT. 


261 


to  be  a greater  proportion  around  San  Ildefonso  than  elsewhere,  but 
even  there  it  seemed  to  be  no  serious  obstacle. 

The  eastern  limit  of  practicable  irrigation  in  the  valley  is  marked  by 
“bad  lands,”  which  consist  of  beds  of  gravel,  sands, -and  clays,  sculp- 
tured into  fantastic  forms  by  erosion  similar  to  those  shown  in  PI.  lxix. 
The  country  is  barren  and  sandy  until  the  divide  that  separates  the 
Espanola  Valley  proper  from  the  Pojuaque  Valley  is  crossed.  The 
Pojuaque  Valley  is  narrow,  and  the  amount  of  water  in  the  stream 
small,  the  present  settlers  requiring  for  their  use  all  the  water  avail- 
able. The  stream  flows  for  a great  part  of  its  course  in  a canyon  that 
extends  to  the  mountains,  a few  miles  above  Pojuaque  Pueblo. 

A short  distance  below  Pojuaque  the  Tesuque  joins  the  Pojuaque, 
the  resultant  stream  flowing  through  a valley  about  eight  miles  long 
before  reaching  the  Rio  Grande.  The  Tesuque  is  about  the  same  size  as 
or  a trifle  smaller  than  the  Pojuaque.  The  irrigable  land  consists  of  a 
narrow  strip  on  each  side  of  the  stream,  averaging  about  half  a mile 
in  width.  It  is  doubtful  if  more  land  than  at  present  tilled  can  be 
irrigated  during  dry  seasons  by  the  present  unregulated  supply.  A 
high  barren  divide,  with  cedar  and  piiion  bushes,  separates  the  head- 
waters of  the  Tesuque  from  those  of  Santa  Fe  Creek  to  the  south. 

THE  CHAMA  DISTRICT. 

The  Chama,1  which,  joins  the  Rio  Grande  in  the  Espanola  Valley,  is 
perhaps  the  largest  tributary  of  that  river,  draining  an  area  of  2,300 
square  miles,  or  nearly  one-quarter  of  the  total  catchment  area  of  the 
Rio  Grande  above  the  junction  of  these  streams.  This  drainage  basin 
consists  principally  of  high  plateaus  and  mountain  ranges,  and  there 
are  no  alluvial  valleys,  strictly  speaking,  except  a long,  narrow  valley 
below  Abiquiu.  There  are,  however,  several  low,  fertile  mesas,  which 
are  as  valuable  as  valleys.  The  richest  one  is  between  the  Nutrias  and 
Brazos  rivers,  in  the  Tierra  Amarilla  grant,  this  tract  containing  also 
several  other  tine  low  mesas.  Little,  however,  has  been  done  to  develop 
this  great  area,  although  its  possibilities  are  large. 

From  Chamita,  at  its  mouth,  to  Abiquiu,  some  25  miles  above,  the 
Chama  flows  in  a valley  similiar  to  that  of  the  Rio  Grande,  but  with 
somewhat  greater  fall.  The  lower  part  of  the  river’s  course  is  through 
a broad  valley;  above  this  are  canyons,  and  again  a broad  valley,  this 
latter  being  below  the  canyon  in  the  Tierra  Amarilla  Mountains.  There 
are  thus  four  general  divisions,  an  upper  and  a lower  valley,  witli  a 
long  canyon  above  each. 

The  lower  Chama  Valley  is  bordered  by  broken  hills  and  bluffs  of 
soft  sandstone,  similar  to  those  shown  on  PI.  lxix,  clay  and  gravel,  and 
‘the  higher  mesa,  capped  with  lava,  seldom  approaches  the  river.  Above 
Abiquiu  the  canyon  portion,  called  the  Canyones  de  Chama,  commences, 
and  extends  as  an  almost  continuous  canyon  to  El  Bado,  a few  miles  be- 


Mainly  from  report  by  G.  T.  Quinby. 


262 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


low  Tierra  Amarilla.  There  are,  as  is  usually  the  case  along  rivers  of 
this  type,  some  places,  locally  termed  u rincons,”  in  which  the  valley 
becomes  sufficiently  broad  for  agricultural  purposes.  About  Tierra 
Amarilla  the  third  division  of  the  river  course  is  reached,  having  many 
of  the  characteristics  of  the  lower  part,  the  deposits  in  both  of  these 
divisions  being  probably  of  lacustrine  origin. 

The  perennial  tributaries  of  the  Chama,  of  which  there  are  sixteen 
of  notable  importance,  vary  in  size  from  mere  rills  in  summer  to  creeks 
whose  headwaters,  lying  well  up  in  the  mountains,  have  a strong  per- 
sistent flow  throughout  the  year. 

All  of  the  tributaries  entering  the  Chama  below  the  Cebolla,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Puerco  or  Salinas  Creek,  have  broad  sandy  channels 
near  their  mouths,  and  thus  in  this  portion  of  their  course  lose  much 
water  by  seepage  and  evaporation.  Their  valleys  are  usually  broad, 
and  rise  from  the  stream  in  gentle  slopes  on  both  sides,  being  bordered 
by  irregular  hills. 

In  the  case  of  the  Puerco  or  Salinas  Creek  the  canyons  near  its  mouth 
keep  near  the  surface  the  water  that  would  otherwise  be  disseminated 
through  the  sand,  and  on  this  account  more  water  reaches  the  Chama. 
The  loss  of  water  in  the  Ojo  Caliente,  Oso,  El  Rito,  Lower  Canyones, 
and  Cangilon  is  particularly  large,  and  also,  though  to  a somewhat 
less  extent,  in  the  Gallinas. 

There  are  two  general  topographic  features  of  these  streams,  viz: 
the  canyon  portion,  in  which  they  descend  rapidly  from  the  mountains, 
and  the  valley  portion  of  varying  width,  in  which  they  flow  gently  to 
their  outlets. 

On  the  Cebolla,  Nutrias,  and  Nutritas  the  same  characters  exist, 
except  that  the  valley  portion  consists  of  a mesa  having  a sheet  of 
volcanic  rock  a short  distance  beneath  the  surface.  The  result  is 
that  a box  canyon  extends  for  a short  distance  from  the  mouth  of 
the  stream  and  checks  in  great  measure  the  erosion  above  it,  leaving 
a stream  with  a shallow  bed  flowing  in  a gentle  depression.  The 
Brazos,  Canyones,  Willow,  and  Little  Chama  belong  rather  to  the 
first  class  of  streams,  those  having  broad  valleys,  but  less  water  is 
lost,  owing  to  the  fact  that  for  most  of  their  length  the  sides  and  bot- 
toms are  formed  of  compact  clay  and  the  bed  is  narrower. 

The  Chama  is  essentially  a muddy  stream,  and  from  its  mouth  as  far  up 
as  the  Gallinas  Creek,  not  only  is  the  Chama  itself  muddy,  but  every 
tributary  is  pouring  into  it  a muddy  torrent.  Above  the  Gallinas  the 
water  is  clearer,  and  its  tributaries,  especially  the  Brazos,  less  muddy. 
Taken  as  a whole,  the  Chama,  however,  is  not  so  muddy  as  the  Rio 
Grande  south  of  Albuquerque,  nor  the  Puerco  below  Nacimiento.  The 
Chama  and  tributaries  below  the  Cebolla  carry  also  a considerable 
amount  of  soluble  matter,  and  patches  of  alkali  land  are  frequent. 
Above  the  Cebolla  the  larger  streams  carry  but  little  alkali,  but  the 
smaller,  particularly  at  low  stages,  apparently  carry  a large  proportion. 
The  alkali  seems  to  be  principally  found  in  the  lake  deposits. 


NEWELL.] 


WATER-SUPPLY  OF  CHAMA  DISTRICT. 


263 


The  amount  of  water  in  any  of  the  streams  of  the  Cliama  drainage 
system  depends  upon  a wide  range  of  modifying  conditions.  Most  of 
the  streams  head  in  the  mountains  at  an  altitude  of  at  least  8,000  feet, 
where  the  winter  snowfall  is  usually  very  heavy.  During  the  spring, 
while  this  snow  is  melting,  the  volume  of  the  stream  is  swollen,  and 
warm  rains  during  this  period  are  apt  to  produce  sudden  floods.  After 
the  snow  has  disappeared  and  throughout  the  summer  occasional  heavy 
rains  cause  a rapid  increase  in  the  volume  of  the  discharge,  followed 
by  a decline  almost  as  sudden.  During  the  late  summer  and  autumn 
the  streams  become  low,  receiving  their  water  from  the  slow  drainage 
of  the  grpund,  and  remain  so  until  the  snow  again  melts  in  the  spring. 
The  increase  of  volume  over  the  outflow  of  ground  water  may  therefore 
be  divided  into  the  regular  yearly  increase  from  melting,  of  which  an 
approximate  estimate  may  be  made  from  the  amount  of  snow  at  the 
headwaters  of  the  streams  and  the  spasmodic  increase  from  torrential 
rains,  an  adequate  measurement  of  which  can  be  obtained  only  from 
systematic  records. 

The  volume  of  water  at  any  point  in  the  Chama  or  in  any  one  of  its 
tributaries  depends  upon  two  conditions : First,  as  has  been  noted,  upon 
the  weather,  especially  the  precipitation  during  the  season;  and 
secondly,  upon  the  portion  of  the  stream  at  which  the  measurements 
are  made — that  is  to  say,  upon  the  physical  characteristics  and  struc- 
ture of  the  valley.  A great  loss  of  water  in  the  lower  portion  is 
characteristic  not  only  of  the  Chama,  but  also  of  all  of  its  tributaries 
entering  below  the  Cebolla.  This  loss  is  occasioned  by  the  spreading 
of  the  stream  into  several  shallow  channels  in  a broad  sandy  bed  of 
gentle  slope.  The  streams  entering  the  Chama  are  briefly  described 
in  order  upstream,  the  discharge  of  each  being  given  as  ascertained 
by  measurements  made  in  March  and  April,  1889.  Oso  Creek  is  a 
small  stream  entering  the  Chama  from  the  south  about  8 or  10 
miles  above  Chamita.  Its  flood  bed  is  broad  and  sandy,  but  in  ordi- 
nary stages  a mere  thread  of  water  flows  in  it.  There  is  a brush  darn 
near  the  mouth,  the  water  being  taken  into  the  Chama  Valley,  as  that 
of  the  Oso  is  very  small  and  irregular  and  bordered  by  broken  and 
greatly  eroded  hills.  The  discharge  of  the  Oso  March  26,  1889,  was 
5 second-feet. 

Ojo  Caliente  Creek,  which  flows  into  the  Chama  nearly  opposite  Oso 
Creek,  was  measured  several  times  and  found  to  carry  during  the  win- 
ter of  1888-’89  from  33  to  50  feet.  The  creek  was  higher  on  March  26, 
1889,  and  was  discharging  about  75  second-feet. 

El  Eito  Creek  enters  the  Chama  Valley  from  the  north,  as  a small 
stream  flowing  in  a flood  channel  nearly  200  yards  in  width,  with  banks 
about  8 feet  in  height.  The  valley  near  the  mouth  is  narrow  and  the 
stream  bed  broad,  but  10  or  12  miles  above  this  poiut  the  valley  widens, 
considerably.  Some  3 miles  above  the  town  of  El  Eito  the  river  leaves 
a canyon,  within  which  the  measured  discharge  was  found  to  be  33 


2G4 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


second-feet  in  March,  1889.  The  stream  at  that  time  had  evidently  not 
acquired  the  full  volume  from  the  melting’  snow.  At  the  same  time  the 
El  Rito  was  flowing  9 second-feet  at  the  point  above  where  it  empties 
into  the  drama,  the  loss  being  probably  due  to  evaporation  and  seepage. 

The  Frijoles  is  a small  stream  joining  the  Chama  from  the  south, 
above  Abiquiu.  The  bed  is  probably  dry  in  summer ; on  March  28,  1889, 
however,  the  discharge  was  about  5 second-feet.  The  valley  along  this 
stream  is  of  inconsiderable  size. 

The  Canyoues  also  enters  the  Chama  from  the  south,  at  the  lower  end 
of  a large  rincon  called  the  Vega  del  Riego,  from  a Mexican  ranch  in  it, 
this  point  being  at  the  upper  end  of  the  sandstone  canyon  above  Abi- 
quiu. The  valley  is  sandy  at  its  mouth,  and  is  narrow  and  bordered 
by  sandstone  mesas.  On  March  28,  1889,  the  discharge  was  14  secoiql- 
feet,  but  the  water  was  muddy,  showing  that  the  stream  was  somewhat 
swollen.  In  summer  the  bed  must  be  dry  for  some  distance  above  the 
outlet. 

Cangilon  Creek  flows  into  the  Chama  from  the  north  through  a great 
arroyo  called  the  Rio  Seco,  in  passing  through  which  a large  amount 
of  water  is  lost.  There  are  openings  along  the  course  of  the  Cangilon 
containing  in  all  several  hundred  acres  of  good  bottom  land.  The  dis- 
charge of  the  stream  after  it  had  emerged  from  Navajo  canyon  was 
found  to  be  28  second-feet  on  March  30  and  45  second-feet  on  April  5, 
1889.  The  water  was  muddy,  due  to  rapid  melting  of  the  snow.  It  is 
reported  that  the  Cangilon  at  this  point  flows  throughout  the  summer. 

Gallinas  Creek  is  a muddy  stream  entering  the  Chama  from  the  south 
in  a comparatively  narrow,  sandy  valley,  bordered  on  both  sides  by  high 
sandstone  mesas.  The  bed  is  sandy,  and  the  water  is  spread  over  it  in 
a thin  sheet.  Irrigation  in  the  valley  is  confined  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
town  of  Gallinas,  some  15  or  20  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  creek. 
The  Gallinas  was  flowing  12  second-feet  at  its  mouth  March  29,  1889, 
and  April  7,  at  Gallinas,  about  20  second-feet. 

Cebolla  Creek  enters  the  Chama  from  the  east  bank  through  a lava 
canyon.  Above  the  canyon  it  flows  through  a.  valley,  broad  in  compar- 
ison to  the  size  of  the  stream,  and  with  a gradual  rise  on  each  side. 
There  is  little  sandy  soil  in  the  valley,  but  the  water  supply  is  too  small 
to  irrigate  even  the  bottom  land  of  the  stream.  With  more  water  an 
enormous  tract  could  be  brought  under  ditch.  The  stream  is  of  the  type 
of  those  having  clay  banks,  soft  shale  outcropping  at  various  points  in 
the  valley,  and  it  reaches  hard  rock  only  when  it  cuts  through  the  lava 
sheet  at  its  mouth.  It  was  very  muddy,  flowing  12  second-feet  when 
gauged  on  March  31, 1889.  The  discharge  during  summer  must  be  very 
small,  but  it  is  reported  that  there  is  always  some  water  in  the  channel. 

Nutrias  Creek  also  empties  into  the  Chama  from  the  eastern  side,  a few 
miles  above  the  Cebolla.  This  valley  is  topographically  almost  identical 
with  that  of  the  Cebolla,  and  is  characterized  also  by  the  great  disparity 
between  the  amount  of  land  in  the  valley  suited  for  irrigation  and  the 


NEWELL.  J 


TRIBUTARIES  OF  THE  CHAMA. 


265 

small  amount  of  water  in  the  stream.  The  water  of  this  stream  was  less 
muddy  than  that  of  the  other  streams  above  mentioned.  The  discharge 
was  10  second-feet  on  April  1, 18S9,  at  the  Lopez  ranch,  at  the  entrance 
to  the  canyon,  below  all  irrigation. 

The  Nutritas  also  flows  into  the  Chama  from  the  east  bank,  a short 
distance  above  the  mouth  of  the  Nutrias  and  is  similar  to  the  Cebolla 
and  Nutrias,  except  that  this  valley  is  somewhat  narrower.  Water 
from  the  Nutritas  is  taken  out  a short  distance  above  Tierra  Amarilla, 
and  brought  upon  a mesa  extending  from  that  place  to  Park  View 
on  the  Chama.  There  is  only  enough  water,  however,  to  show  what 
might  be  done  were  it  practicable  in  any  way  to  increase  the  supply. 
Above  Tierra  Amarilla  the  valley  rises  very  gradually  on  each  side 
of  the  stream  in  great  undulations  covered  by  forests  of  long-leaf  pine, 
none  of  this  land  being  cultivated.  There  seems  to  be  no  surplus 
water  in  the  Cebolla,  Nutrias  or  Nutritas.  The  Nutritas  was  flowing 
April  1,  at  a point  about  5 miles  below  Tierra  Amarilla,  20  second-feet. 

The  Brazos  is  the  most  important  tributary  to  the  Chama,  flowing  into 
it  from  the  east  about  2 miles  above  Tierra  Amarilla.  It  is  formed  from 
two  streams  heading  high  in  the  Tierra  Amarilla  Mountains,  near  Brazos 
Peak.  The  lower  valley  is  broad  and  cultivated,  but  the  stream  flows 
through  this  in  a wide,  pebbly  bed.  From  about  2 miles  above  its  mouth 
to  the  point  where  it  leaves  the  canyon  it  is  bordered  on  both  sides  by 
gently  rolling  land  covered  by  pine  forests,  which  when  cleared  will 
yield  valuable  timber  and  leave  several  thousand  acres  of  irrigable  land. 
None  of  this  pine  land  above  Ensenada  is  cleared,  although  a couple  of 
irrigating  ditches  are  brought  through  it. 

The  bed  of  the  Brazos  has  the  bowlder-strewn  character  of  a moun- 
tain brook,  and  its  fall  is  rapid ; even  in  stages  of  high  water  the  stream 
is  clear.  On  April  2,  1889,  the  discharge  was  150  second-feet,  and 
much  of  the  snow  in  the  mountains  had  not  then  melted.  It  is  stated 
that  the  Brazos  continues  to  discharge  all  summer  an  amount  of  water 
nearly  as  great  as  this. 

The  Canyones  and  Willow  Creeks  are  two  small  streams  entering  the 
Chama  from  the  east  bank.  They  have  very  small  catchment  areas,  and 
were  flowing  on  April  4,  1889,  8 and  12  second-feet  respectively.  It  is 
probable  that  in  summer  they  are  nearly  if  not  quite  dry.  There  is  no 
cultivation  in  these  valleys,  but  iu  places  some  hay  is  cut. 

The  Little  Chama  is  the  name  given  to  the  western  fork  of  the  Chama, 
which  joins  the  main  stream  about  2.j  miles  below  the  town  of  Chama, 
flowing  in  a broad  valley,  and  having  steep  clay  banks.  At,  the  time 
when  measured  the  snow  was  melting  rapidly,  and  the  stream  was  flow- 
ing bank  full,  and  besides  this,  every  wash  and  arroyo  was  pouring  a 
flood  of  muddy  water  into  it.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  its  volume 
of  95  second-feet  is  much  above  the  average. 


266 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


Summary  of  water  flowing  in  the  tributaries  of  the  Chama,  as  measured  March  26  to 

April  4,  1S89. 

Second-feet. 


1.  Oso 5 

2.  Ojo  Cali  elite 75 

3.  El  Rito 33 

4.  Frijoles 5 

5.  Canyones  (Lower) 14 

6.  Cangilon 28 

7.  Puerco  or  Saliua , 40 

8.  Galliuas 12 

9.  Cebolla 12 

10.  Nutrias 10 

11.  Nutritas 26 

12.  Brazos 150 

13.  Canyones  (Upper) 8 

14.  Willow 12 

15.  Little  Chama 95 


Total 525 


This  estimate  does  not  include  the  water  in  the  main  branch  of  the 
Chama  above  the  town  of  Chama,  which  must  have  been  flowing  at  the 
rate  of  at  least  300  second-feet.  The  total  discharge  of  the  Chama  at 
Abiquiu  at  this  time  was  estimated  to  be  750  second-feet. 

Beginning  at  Chamita,  a small  Mexican  town  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  having  an  altitude  of  5,G19  feet,  the  Chama  Valley  rises  to  the 
northward,  the  increase  in  elevation  being  accompanied  by  colder  cli- 
mate. At  Abiquiu  the  altitude  is  5,930  feet,  but  the  climate  is  re- 
ported to  be  similar  to  that  at  Espanola,  the  Jemez  Mountains  to  the 
south  and  rising  land  to  the  west  and  north  affording  ample  shelter. 
From  Abiquiu  the  land  rises  steadily  to  the  west  and  north,  and  at 
Tierra  Amarilla  an  altitude  of  7,4G6  feet  is  reached.  Here  frosts 
occur  in  May,  and  are  not  uncommon  even  as  late  as  the  latter  part 
of  June.  Much  snow  falls  during  the  winter,  and  remains  upon  the 
ground  until  late  in  the  spring.  At  Chama  the  elevation  is  7,840, 
feet  and  snow  usually  remains  upon  the  ground  until  about  the  first 
of  May  or  eveu  later. 

Although  the  summer  season  throughout  this  country  is  short,  it 
does  not  appear  to  have  a deterrent  effect  upon  agriculture  in  general, 
except  that  some  of  the  more  sensitive  fruits  and  crops  are  not  raised, 
and  although  the  winters  are  colder  than  those  of  the  Bio  Grande 
Valley  and  the  snowfall  heavier,  still  winters  as  cold  and  snows  as  deep 
are  successfully  encountered  by  farmers  in  other  sections  of  the  country. 
There  is  a great  compensation,  however,  in  the  increased  and  prolonged 
si>ring  water  supply. 

As  much  as  40  per  cent  of  the  irrigable  land  may  be  considered  as 
under  ditch  in  the  Chama  Valley,  not  including  the  great  area  of  lava 
mesa  or  the  upper  portion  of  the  valley.  In  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  land  in  the  valley  suitable  for  irrigation  the  El  Bito  appears  to  have 


NEWELL.] 


IRRIGATION  IN  CHAMA  VALLEY. 


267 


most  land  under  ditch,  and  the  Vega  del  Riego  and  upper  Chama,  above 
Los  Brazos,  the  least.  In  at  least  two  cases,  one  above  Ensenada  on  the 
Brazos,  and  one  above  Los  Brazos  on  the  Chama,  a ditch  ran  for  several 
miles  through  timbered  land  from  which  the  trees  had  not  been  cleared, 
nor  the  water  used  on  the  route.  Much  land  is  also  under  ditch  and  not 
used  on  account  of  the  peculiar  location  of  the  little  isolated  ranches, 
to  water  which  the  owner  has  been  compelled  to  take  water  from  the 
stream  some  distance  above  the  place  on  which  it  is  to  be  used,  tbe  in- 
tervening land  thus  being  brought  under  ditch,  although  not  owned 
by  the  irrigator. 

The  amount  of  land  under  crop  is  small,  and  in  no  instance  has  any- 
thing like  farming  on  a large  scale  been  adopted.  For  a large  portion 
of  the  country  the  railways  are  so  distant  that  it  would  appear  imprac- 
ticable for  a farmer  to  attempt  to  raise  crops  larger  than  required  for 
his  own  use,  or  for  the  limited  demand  of  some  merchant.  Only  in 
three  localities  is  there  anything  approaching  a general  cultivation  of 
the  land.  These  are  at  Tierra  Amarilla  and  surrounding  towns,  at  that 
part  of  the  valley  between  Chamita  and  Abiquiu,  and  also  about  the 
town  of  El  Rito.  In  all  the  rest  of  the  valley,  not  taking  into  account 
scattered  ranches  along  the  tributaries,  the  amount  of  irrigated  land 
would  not  exceed  1,000  acres. 


Summary  of  the  estimates  of  irrigation. 


Localities. 

Irrigable. 

Under 

ditch. 

Actually 

under 

crop. 

Acres. 

20,  000 
6, 000 
20, 000 
10,  000 
9,000 
35,  000 

Acres. 
10,  000 
3,  000 

Acres. 

2,100 

400 

4,  000 

5,  000 
8,  000 

600 

1,300 

1, 100 

100,  000 

30,  000 

5,500 

These  estimates  are  probably  too  small  as  regards  the  amount  of  irri- 
gable land,  which  may  prove  to  be  uearly  50  per  cent  greater  than  is 
given. 

In  the  Chama  Valley  as  at  Taos,  with  but  few  exceptions,  the  water 
is  applied  to  the  soil  by  flooding  “squares”  or  small  rectangles  sur- 
rounded by  ridges  of  earth,  this  system  of  taking  the  water  directly 
from  the  main  ditch  and  allowing  it  to  flow  from  square  to  square  being 
general  throughout  New  Mexico.  Apparently  when  the  water  is  al- 
lowed to  flow  unchecked  over  the  land,  the  finer  sediment  can  be  de- 
posited only  in  the  most  favorable  places,  and  thus  quite  as  much  soil 
is  washed  from  the  land  as  is  deposited  upon  it. 

In  the  case  of  grass,  however,  after  the  squares  are  full  the  flow  is 
checked,  and  the  water  kept  upon  the  ground  for  some  time.  Thus 
not  only  does  the  finer  material  have  time  to  settle,  but  the  soil  itself 


2G8 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


is  more  thoroughly  soaked  with  water.  The  general  opinion  of  the  irri- 
gators is  that  as  now  cultivated  land  decreases  in  productiveness  with 
constant  cropping.  At  those  localities  however,  where  this  holding  the 
water  between  ridges  or  “checks”  is  practiced,  the  decrease  in  produc- 
tiveness is  said  to  be  less. 

Wheat,  oats,  peas,  beans,  barley,  corn,  and  potatoes  are  the  principal 
crops  raised  in  the  Chama  Valley.  “ Rust”  or  “smut,”  a parasitic 
growth,  is  oue  of  the  plagues  of  the  wheat  growers,  particularly  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Tierra  Amarilla.  The  “lady  bug”  is  a source  of  con- 
siderable damage  to  the  bean  crop,  often  resulting  in  its  partial  destruc- 
tion. The  yield  per  acre  of  wheat  is  variously  estimated  throughout 
the  valley,  but  on  successful  farms  a little  over  20  bushels  per  acre  is 
probably  a fair  average. 

Potatoes  are  little  grown  by  the  Mexicans,  but  other  inhabitants  find 
no  difficulty  in  raising  good  crops.  At  higher  altitudes,  particularly 
near  the  mountains,  potatoes  could,  without  doubt,  be  raised  without 
irrigation.  Corn  is  grown  only  to  a small  extent  in  the  upper  Chama 
Valley,  principally  from  the  fact  that  it  matures  somewhat  later  in  the 
summer  than  the  other  crops,  and  when  water  is  too  scanty  for  the  tinal 
irrigation.  Alfalfa  is  not  a common  crop,  but  more  is  being  sown  each 
year,  and  it  is  reported  that  three  good  crops  can  be  cut. 

Fruit  and  grapes  are  grown  in  the  lower  part  of  the  valley  and  about 
El  Rito.  Some  fruit  is  also  raised  about  Tierra  Amarilla,  and  there  can 
be  but  little  doubt  that  suitable  varieties  of  apples,  pears,  and  the  more 
hardy  fruits  can  be  raised  all  through  the  valley. 

The  soil  throughout  the  Chama  Valley  is  in  general  composed  of  a 
mixture  of  sand  and  clay,  the  clay  usually  in  excess.  An  exception 
may  be  made  to  this  statement  in  the  case  of  the  lower  portion  of  the 
Chama  Valley,  which  is  very  sandy.  The  valleys  of  the  upper  tribu- 
taries, and  indeed  of  the  upper  Chama  itself,  have  a decidedly  clay 
character,  while  the  ridges  and  higher  ground  are  usually  more  sandy. 

The  testimony  appears  almost  entirely  on  the  side  of  the  opinion  that 
when  properly  irrigated  the  land  suffers  no  decrease  in  productiveness 
from  continuous  cropping.  Instances  are  cited  in  which  land  cropped 
continuously  for  10  or  12  years  was  supposed  actually  to  have  gained  in 
productiveness.  In  the  lower  Chama  Valley  there  is  probably  a large 
amount  of  silt  deposited  upon  the  land,  but  in  the  vicinity  of  Tierra 
Amarilla  the  streams  are  clearer,  and  a smaller  amount  is  deposited. 

So  far  as  ascertained  there  is  no  canal  company  in  the  Chama  Valley 
selling  water.  All  the  ditches  are  owned  either  by  communities  or  by 
individuals,  and  no  record  is  kept  of  the  cost  of  putting  water  upon  land. 
The  realization  that  time  has  a money  value  is  almost  unknown  among 
Mexicans.  When  they  can  do  anything  themselves,  they  take  no  ac- 
count either  of  their  time  or  labor.  This  is  shown  in  many  localities  in 
New  Mexico  where  brush  dams,  requiring  yearly  a great  amount  of 
labor,  are  common.  The  farming  in  the  Chama  Valley  is  done  almost 


NEWELL.] 


WATER  SUPPLY  OF  SANTA  FE  VALLEY. 


261) 


entirely  by  Mexicans,  the  few  inhabitants  of  other  nationality  being- 
cattle  men,  miners  and  storekeepers,  and  on  this  account  it  has  been 
found  a matter  of  great  difficulty  to  obtain  reliable  estimates. 

Local  regulations  regarding  the  distribution  of  water  differ  in  almost 
every  town,  apparently  having  grown  up  from  a mixture  of  Spanish  and 
Indian  customs.  The  customs  of  the  Pueblo  Indians  are  essentially 
communal,  and  have  left  a strong  impression  upon  the  local  rules  now 
enforced,  as  embodied  in  the  major-domo  system,  whose  code  is  largely 
unwritten,  but  is  enforced  at  least  among  the  Mexicans. 

In  some  portions  of  the  territory  water  is  given  to  the  user  strictly 
by  time;  in  others,  by  the  actual  need  of  his  crop  for  it;  in  others, 
according  to  the  amount  of  land  that  he  has  under  crop ; and  yet  again, 
according  to  the  amount  of  work  he  has  done  in  repairing  and  clearing- 
out  the  ditch.  The  ditch  itself  is  built  and  maintained  by  the  joint 
labor  of  the  community,  and  is  common  property  in  the  strict  sense. 
No  one  is  allowed  to  take  water  from  the  ditch  unless  he  has  either 
personally  or  by  proxy  done  the  task  assigned  him  by  the  major-domo, 
either  in  the  construction  or  in  the  maintenance  of  the  ditch.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  Taos  Valley,  the  major-domo  is  elected  every  spring, 
and  has  charge  of  everything  connected  with  irrigation.  In  some 
places  he  is  paid  a small  salary  during  the  spring  months;  in  others  his 
services  are  voluntary,  except  that  he  is  exempt  from  work  on  the 
ditch. 

SANTA  FE  DISTRICT. 

The  streams  of  which  Santa  Fe  Creek  is  the  chief  and  which  enter 
the  Rio  Grande  south  of  the  Espanola  Valley  can  be  considered  as 
forming  a division  by  themselves.  These  rise  in  the  range  east  of 
Santa  Fe  and  flow  westerly  over  high  plains  to  join  the  river.  In  the 
mountains  at  the  head  of  Santa  Fe  Creek  are  two  small  lakes,  which 
may  be  considered  as  typical  of  those  at  the  head  waters  of  other  streams 
flowing-  towards  the  Rio  Grande.  Many  of  these  can  be  utilized  as 
small  storage  reservoirs  by  constructing  dams  at  the  outlets.  A de- 
scription of  one  will  serve  to  show  the  conditions  surrounding  them. 

At  the  head  of  Santa  Fe  Canyon  is  a lake  about  4 acres  in  area, 
with  a depth  of  20  feet.  Formerly  this  lake  was  larger,  but  some  years 
ago  an  outlet  was  cut  reducing  the  level  by  about  0 feet.  This  outlet 
can  be  closed  by  a dam  and  suitable  gates,  so  that  the  level  of  the  water 
can  be  raised  at  least  15  feet,  forming  a reservoir  of  small  size,  the  sur- 
face area  being  between  5 and  0 acres  in  extent.  In  September,  1889, 
at  the  driest  time  of  the  year,  a stream  of  about  2 second-feet  was  flow- 
ing from  the  lake. 

By  the  utilization  of  this  and  other  small  reservoirs  the  summer  flow 
of  Santa  Fe  Creek  can  be  increased,  sufficiently  at  least  to  be  of  great 
benefit  to  the  agricultural  land  at  the  time  when,  by  reason  of  low  water, 
many  of  the  crops,  and  even  fruit  trees,  are  injured  by  drought.  The 
elevation  of  these  ponds  is  about  11,000  feet,  and  the  evaporation  is  very 
small,  since  they  are  surrounded  and  protected  by  the  mountain  peaks. 


270 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


Along  the  valley  of  the  Santa  Fe  Creek,  below  Santa  Fe,  but  a small 
amount  of  land  is  cultivated.  Agriculture  is  limited  by  the  small  amount 
of  water  that  can  be  depended  upon  during  the  growing  season.  The 
stream  runs  through  a valley  with  gradually  sloping  sides  as  far  as  Ciene- 
guilla,  a Mexican  town  about  12  miles  from  Santa  Fe.  At  Cieneguilla  the 
stream  enters  the  La  Bajada  Canyon,  which  is  deep  and  narrow  as  far 
as  the  town  of  La  Bajada,  below  which  is  a broader  valley  with  a gentle 
slope  to  the  left  and  the  edge  of  the  mesa  to  the  right.  This  valley  con- 
tinues almost  to  the  mouth  of  the  creek,  a distance  of  some  6 or  7 miles. 

The  mesa  between  La  Bajada  and  Pena  Blanca,  on  the  Rio  Grande, 
has  a smooth  surface  and  gentle  slope,  so  that  water  could  be  brought 
from  La  Bajada  Canyon  and  many  thousand  acres  be  put  under  ditch, 
if  sufficient  water  could  be  obtained  by  storage  or  other  means.  Dur- 
ing the  spring  months  a large  amount  of  water  passes  through  the 
canyon,  and  it  is  probable  that  much  water  might  be  saved  in  the 
canyon  even  by  dams  of  a temporary  character,  such,  for  example,  as  are 
used  on  the  Puerco. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Pena  Blanca  the  laud  is  as  thoroughly  culti- 
vated as  in  any  part  of  the  Rio  Grande  Valley.  Grain  fields,  orchards 
and  vineyards  abound,  and  the  ditches  are  carried  back  close  around 
the  base  of  conglomerate-capped  sand  hills  that  mark  the  edge  of  the 
valley,  so  that  there  is  but  little  land  not  under  ditch. 

Four  miles  down  the  Rio  Grande,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gallisteo, 
the  first  creek  south  of  the  Santa  Fe,  is  the  pueblo  of  Santo  Domingo, 
and  several  miles  up  the  creek  above  this  is  the  town  of  Wallace.  A 
very  deep  ditch  runs  across  the  little  divide  between  the  Rio  Grande 
and  Gallisteo  Creek,  and,  although  the  land  is  well  adapted  for  irriga- 
tion, the  water  is  not  used  along  the  ditch,  but  only  at  distant  points. 
The  Gallisteo  Creek  was  dry  when  examined  in  January,  1889,  but 
showed  signs  of  frequently  carrying  large  amounts  of  water,  and  the 
railway  company  has  done  considerable  work  to  prevent  it  from  en- 
croaching upon  their  track.  It  drains  a large  watershed,  and  toward 
the  headwaters  a constant  stream  flows  in  the  channel. 

ALBUQUERQUE  DISTRICT. 

Under  this  name  can  be  included  all  the  Rio  Grande  Valley  from 
Pena  Blanca  to  San  Marcial.  The  valley  is  narrow,  being  at  no  place 
over  3 miles  wide,  and  at  many  points  the  bounding  hills  or  mesas 
approach  each  other  so  closely  that  no  room  is  left  for  bottom  lands. 
Around  Bernalillo,  Albuquerque,  and  Belen  are  areas  of  cultivated  land 
of  excellent  quality  and  some  large  vineyards;  the  extent,  however,  is 
not  as  great  as  in  the  Mesilla  Valley  further  down  the  river.  Below 
Bernalillo  and  also  below  Belen  on  the  east  side  of  the  river  are  large 
alkali  flats,  once  productive  fields,  but  now  worthless  from  lack  of 
drainage. 

The  river  from  Pena  Blanca  to  San  Marcial  occupies  a broad  sandy 


NEWELL,] 


THE  RIO  GRANDE  VALLEY. 


271 


bed,  dividing  in  low  stages  into  a number  of  narrow  and  crooked 
channels,  but  in  flood  covering  in  many  places  nearly  half  of  the  valley. 
Above  the  pueblo  of  San  Felipe,  for  a distance  of  from  6 to  S miles,  a 
large  percentage  of  the  valley  is  under  ditch.  At  San  Felipe  the 
valley  narrows,  and  between  the  San  Felipe  and  Algodones  Creeks  a 
large  part  of  the  agricultural  land  seems  to  have  been  deserted,  and 
several  of  the  higher  ditches  have  been  abandoned.  This  is  possibly 
the  effect  of  the  Santo  Domingo  and  San  Felipe  grants,  which  cover 
nine-tenths  of  the  valley  between  Santo  Domingo  and  Algodones,  and 
are  much  larger  than  the  Indians  can  cultivate  under  present  conditions. 

NT  ear  Bernalillo  the  many  vineyards  and  orchards  give  to  the  country 
an  appearance  of  prosperity.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  valley 
between  Bernalillo  and  Alameda,  about  half  way  to  Albuquerque, 
although  a large  portion  of  the  area  is  occupied  by  the  broad  river 
bed.  The  country  about  Bernalillo  is  one  ot  the  wine-producing 
centers  of  the  valley,  and  is  reputed  to  have  the  largest  distillery  in 
the  territory. 

Near  Albuquerque  is  more  waste  land,  and  the  valley  is  bordered  by 
barren  hills  of  blown  sand.  This  sand  settles  in  and  around  the  low 
bushes  of  the  valley,  forming  hillocks,  which  give  this  portion  of  the 
valley  a curious  appearance.  Much  of  the  land  is  fenced  and  is  devoted 
to  raising  a scanty  supply  of  a coarse  grass  for  grazing  purposes.  The 
vineyards  and  orchards  are  smaller,  and  there  does  not  seem  to  be  the 
same  thrift  and  prosperity  as  about  Bernalillo. 

From  Albuquerque  to  Los  Lunas,  a distance  of  some  25  miles,  the 
the  western  side  of  the  valley  is  broader,  and  has  great  hills  of  wind- 
blown sand  for  its  border.  Only  the  lower  and  more  accessible  parts 
of  the  valley  are  irrigated,  although  there  is  a large  amount  of  rather 
sandy  land  which  is  still  capable  of  cultivation,  and  which  could  easily 
be  brought  under  ditch.  The  valley  as  far  below  Albuquerque  as 
Pajarito,  about  8 miles,  is  thickly  inhabited,  but  the  average  amount 
of  land  per  family  cultivated  among  the  Mexicans  is  very  small,  not 
exceeding  a couple  of  acres.  The  number  of  English-speaking  agri- 
culturists in  the  valley  is  insignificant. 

From  Albuquerque  to  San  Marcial  the  drainage  of  the  lower  lands 
of  the  Rio  Grande  Yalley  is  exceedingly  poor.  Many  ponds,  some  of 
them  8 or  10  acres  in  extent,  are  full  of  water  during  the  early  part 
of  the  year,  and  others  show  by  the  alkali  coating  on  their  sides  and 
bottoms  that  the  water  has  but  recently  left  them.  This  alkali  coating 
is  so  universal  between  Los  Lunas  and  Belen  as  to  give  to  the  casual 
observer  the  impression  of  a light  snow.  Apparently  the  Mexicans 
have  no  system  either  of  surface  or  under  drainage,  without  which  it  is 
doubtful  if  much  further  cultivation  can  be  successfully  accomplished. 
The  ditches  in  this  low  land  are  liable  to  frequent  overflow,  and 
much  damage  is  yearly  done  by  their  being  washed  out  or  being  tilled 
with  silt. 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


272 


Tlie  pueblo  of  Isleta,  15  miles  below  Albuquerque,  is  said  to  be  one 
of  the  richest  in  the  Territory,  and  appears  to  be  in  a more  prosperous 
condition  than  the  neighboring  Mexican  towns.  Between  Isleta  and 
Los  Lunas  is  but  little  farming,  but  at  Los  Lunas  the  vineyards  are  im- 
portant and  some  wine  is  produced.  Very  little  alfalfa  is  grown  in 
this  vicinity. 

From  Los  Lunas  south  the  valley  is  thickly  inhabited,  and  there  is  a 
succession  of  small  clusters  of  Mexican  houses.  The  same  apparent 
lack  of  industry  and  thrift  prevails  as  in  many  places  along  the  river 
bottoms,  and  the  disadvantages  of  living  on  the  low  tiats  are  shown  in 
the  number  of  houses  which  have  fallen  in  by  the  sinking  of  the  foun- 
dations. A large  part  of  the  valley  south  of  Los  Lunas  is  overgrown 
with  cottonwood  thickets  or  bosques,  as  they  are  called.  Where  these 
are  cut  away  the  land  is  found  to  be  excellent.  The  vineyards  seem  to 
be  thrifty  and  in  good  condition  wherever  care  has  been  given,  but  the 
absence  of  orchards  is  notable.  All  along  the  sides  of  the  valley,  at 
elevations  a little  higher  than  the  portions  now  cultivated,  are  lands 
which  probably  could  be  irrigated  by  higher  and  larger  canals. 

The  Rio  Grande  Valley  below  La  Joya  station,  53  miles  south  of 
Albuquerque,  narrows  again,  and  at  San  Acacia  the  river  enters  a 
canyon  about  250  yards  wide,  the  river  occupying  the  greater  part  of 
this  width,  at  ordinary  stages  running  through  the  sand  in  several 
channels.  Below  San  Acacia  high  bluffs  on  the  west  side  of  the  river 
leave  only  a small  strip  of  irrigable  land  some  0 or  8 miles  to  the  south- 
ward. These  bluffs  are  farther  back  from  the  river  on  the  east  side,  so 
that  more  land  can  be  utilized,  and  about  5 miles  north  of  Socorro  the 
valley  becomes  considerably  broader.  Throughout  this  section,  and 
indeed  all  along  the  valley,  farming  is  carried  on  upon  a petty  scale, 
and  not  more  than  one-third  of  the  land  is  under  ditch.  From  Socorro 
to  San  Marcial  the  character  of  the  valley  and  its  conditions  are  essen- 
tially the  same  as  portions  already  described,  there  being  perhaps  more 
bosques  and  fewer  settlements.  Colonies  have  been  started  just  above 
San  Marcial,  and  also  near  Fort  Craig. 

The  methods  of  irrigation  in  this  long  valley  are  those  of  a past  cen- 
tury; innumerable  small  ditches  take  water  to  the  bottom  lands  only. 
Every  town  has  its  acequia,  an  unsurveyed,  irregular  ditch,  built  with- 
out method  and  controlled  in  a haphazard  way.  At  the  head  .are  brush 
dams,  and  along  the  course,  whenever  it  crosses  an  arroyo,  the  ditch  is 
liable  at  every  rain  to  be  washed  out,  and,  at  nearly  every  road  cross- 
ing, its  banks  are  worn  down  by  animals  and  wagons.  The  acequias 
are  the  common  property  of  the  people  using  them,  the  water  tax  con- 
sisting in  a share  of  work  in  the  ditch  repairs,  an  amount  depending 
upon  the  quantity  of  land  irrigated.  The  water  is  supplied  by  the  hour, 
a man  being  allowed  certain  days  and  nights  in  his  turn,  during  which 
time  he  may  fill  his  “ contra  acequia.”  The  major-domo  who  distri- 
butes the  water  is  supposed  to  see  that  each  man  gets  his  proper  share, 
reckoned  in  hours,  and  that  his  head  gate  is  closed  at  the  proper  time. 


NEWELL.]  CONDITION  OF  IRRIGATION  IN  SANTA  FE  VALLEY. 


273 


The  results  of  this  rather  loose  system  are  both  beneficial  and  inju- 
rious ; beneficial  in  that  any  man,  even  the  poorest,  can  pay  his  water 
tax;  injurious  in  that  no  one  is  responsible  for  a continuous  supply  of 
water,  and  because  the  system,  once  started,  is  seldom  or  never  im- 
proved, and  such  systems  are  almost  always  begun  on  a very  small 
scale. 

Irrigation  along  the  Rio  Grande  is  in  practically  the  same  condition 
as  when  the  Spaniards  first  passed  up  the  valley.  Some  few  new  cus- 
toms have  been  introduced,  but  the  system  is  essentially  the  old 
Pueblo  Indian  system.  If  anything,  the  Indians  are  now  in  advance  of 
the  native  Mexicans.  Their  farms  are  better  kept,  their  ditches  are 
more  regular  and  cleaner,  and  their  harvests  are  apparently  more 
bountiful.  They  are  more  thrifty,  and  having  a common  interest  they 
work  together  with  less  conflict  than  their  neighbors. 

There  are  comparatively  few  fruit  trees  or  vines  in  this  part  of  the  ' 
valley.  Occasionally  an  “American”  ranch  is  passed  or  the  farm  of  a 
wealthy  Mexican,  and  here  are  almost  always  trees  and  vines  in  small 
patches.  The  general  appearance  of  lack  of  industry  in  attempting 
permanent  improvements  is  due,  in  part,  to  that  inherent  peculiarity  of 
the  natives,  freedom  from  all  thought  of  the  future,  and  in  part  to  the 
uncertain  state  of  the  water  supply.  A few  acres  of  corn,  a small  patch 
of  wheat,  and  a garden  of  chile  and  onions  usually  suffice.  It  would  be 
difficult  to  find  another  valley,  settled  for  hundreds  of  years,  as  favora- 
ble to  agriculture  as  this,  which  shows  so  few  signs  of  activity.  The 
soil  is  capable  of  producing  anything  that  will  grow  in  a warm,  temper- 
ate climate;  yet  in  most  places  corn,  wheat,  and  oats  remain  the  staple 
crops. 

The  land  in  the  Albuquerque  Valley  is  for  the  most  part  excellent, 
portions  of  it,  however,  being  subject  to  overflow,  and  other  portions, 
as  before  mentioned,  containing  quantities  of  alkali.  In  general,  it  is  a 
rich  deposit  of  silt  on  the  old  river  flood  plain.  Near  the  mesa  the 
plain  gradually  passes  into  hummocks,  layers  of  sand  and  gravel,  the 
height  of  the  mesa  above  the  river  varying  from  15  to  50  feet,  or  even 
more.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  water  of  the  Rio  Grande  can  be  led 
upon  a part  of  this  mesa,  the  soil  of  which  is  often  very  fertile,  in  places 
consisting  of  weathered  basalt,  although  in  general  it  is  made  up  of 
water- washed  gravels. 

TRIBUTARIES  BELOW  THE  CHAMA. 

SANTA  FK  ANI)  ADJACENT  STREAMS. 

In  the  following  paragraphs  a brief  summary  is  given  of  the  principal 
streams  entering  the  Albuquerque  Valley.  The  first  of  these  is  Santa 
Fe  Creek,  which,  as  previously  described,  discharges  a very  small 
amount  of  water  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  Gallisteo  Creek 
flows  a large  amount  of  flood  water  into  the  Rio  Grande,  but  often  is 
dry  for  miles  above  its  mouth,  as  was  the  case  in  January  and  Febru- 
ary, 1889.  For  some  8 miles  at  least  above  its  mouth  it  runs  through 
12  GEOL.,  PT.  2 18 


274 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


unconsolidated  deposits,  and  in  no  place  can  anything  approaching  a 
fixed  cross  section  be  found. 

A small  stream  comes  down  through  Bear  Canyon,  in  the  Sandias 
about  east  of  Bernalillo,  but  the  water  all  sinks  within  a mile  or  a mile 
and  a half  of  the  mouth  of  the  canyon,  except  in  times  of  flood. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  stream  in  Tijeras  Canyon,  about  17  miles 
east  of  Albuquerque,  except  that  there  is  an  unusually  good  natural 
dam  site  at  the  mouth  of  this  canyon.  It  has  been  proposed  to  make  a 
dam  at  this  spot,  and  conduct  the  waters  held  by  it  out  upon  the  mesa 
on  the  east  side,  opposite  Albuquerque. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  canyon  are  excellent  facilities  for  erecting  the 
dam.  The  stream  has  cut  through  a mass  of  crystalline  feldspathic 
rock,  leaving  an  opening  not  more  than  150  feet  wide.  The  rock 
rises  abruptly  in  a cliff  on  one  side  to  a height  of  80  or  90  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  stream.  As  the  valley  opens  out  to  a considerable 
width  just  above  the  point  selected  for  a dam,  ample  room  is  given  for 
a large  volume  of  water.  The  stream  in  the  latter  part  of  January, 
1889,  was  not  flowing  more  than  2£  to  3 second-feet,  but  was  reported 
to  be  larger  in  November,  when  the  discharge  was  about  second-feet, 
as  shown  by  float  gauging.  This  stream  has  cut  back  through  the 
steep  face  of  the  Sandia  Mountains,  and  drains  a portion  of  the  dip  sur- 
face on  the  eastern  side,  thereby  securing  a larger  drainage  area  than 
most  of  the  small  streams,  and  thus  in  flood  a large  amount  of  water  is 
carried.  The  water  can  be  brought  to  the  surface  of  the  mesa  about  1 
mile  below  the  dam,  and  thence  conducted  over  a practically  indefinite 
amount  of  mesa  land. 

Hell  Canyon,  some  20  miles  southeast  of  Albuquerque,  contains  a 
small  stream,  but  it  too  sinks  within  a short  distance  of  the  mouth  of 
the  canyon.  At  Abo  Paso  and  several  points  to  the  south  are  streams 
of  the  same  character,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  there  is  a single  stream  on 
the  east  side  between  Pena  Blanca  and  San  Marcial  that  flows  at  the 
rate  of  5 second-feet,  except  in  time  of  flood,  and  in  many  seasons  not 
one  of  them  delivers  any  water  within  10  miles  of  the  Rio  Grande. 

West  of  the  Albuquerque  Valley  are  the  large  drainage  areas  of  the 
Jemez  and  Puerco  tributary  to  the  Rio  Grande.  Little  water  flows 
from  them  during  the  summer.  • In  fact,  it  may  be  said  that  on  the  west 
bank  not  a single  stream  below  Pena  Blanca,  with  the  possible  excep- 
tion of  the  Jemez,  reaches  the  Rio  Grande,  except  during  the  annual 
freshets.  The  Salado  comes  in  as  an  arroyo,  about  8 miles  north  of 
Socorro.  Water  flows  in  it  along  the  foot  of  Ladroues  Peak,  and  some 
irrigation  is  done,  but  for  the  greater  part  of  the  distance  it  flows  in  a 
canyon. 

JEMEZ  RIVER. 

The  Jemez  River  enters  the  Rio  Grande  from  the  west  at  a point 
about  5 miles  above  the  town  of  Bernalillo.  It  drains  the  country 
south  of  the  Chama  and  west  of  the  Santa  Fe  drainage.  In  the  head- 


NEWELL.] 


TRIBUTARIES  OF  THE  RIO  GRANDE. 


275 


waters  are  many  open  valleys,  at  an  elevation  of  8,000  feet  and  upwards, 
in  which  are  hay  ranches  and  cultivated  lands.  There  are  several 
localities  at  which  water  can  be  held  by  the  construction  of  suitable 
dams.  Leaving  the  mountains  the  small  tributaries  enter  narrow  can- 
yons, finally  uniting  at  the  head  of  the  Jemez  Yalley,  about  5 miles 
above  Jemez  Pueblo. 

This  valley  is  from  1 to  3 miles  in  width.  Its  soil  is  in  most  places 
sandy,  but  with  the  application  of  water  is  very  fertile.  Agriculture 
is  carried  on  to  a small  extent  by  the  Jemez  Indians  and  by  the  Mexi- 
cans at  San  Ysidro.  Three  miles  below  this  latter  town  the  Rio  Salado 
comes  in  from  the  west  through  a broad,  fertile  valley.  The  valley 
continues  to  widen  and  contains  large  areas  of  excellent  land.  Small 
areas  are  cultivated  by  the  Indians  of  Silla  and  Santa  Ana,  but  the 
supply  of  water  is  deficient  for  their  needs,  or  can  not  be  diverted  suc- 
cessfully from  the  river.  The  soil  is  very  fertile  and  produces  fine 
grapes,  peaches,  apples,  corn,  and  vegetables. 

In  this  portion  of  its  course  the  river  occupies  a wide,  sandy  channel, 
in  which  the  greater  part  of  the  water  disappears  excepting  in  times  of 
flood.  Below  the  Santa  Ana  Pueblo  the  river  enters  a narrow  canyon, 
through  which  it  continues  to  its  junction  with  the  Rio  Grande. 
Throughout  the  lower  part  of  its  course  the  river  is  bordered  by  mesas 
covered  by  arable  lands,  to  a part  of  which  at  least  water  could  be 
brought  from  points  in  or  near  the  canyons  of  the  various  tributaries. 

The  discharge  of  this  river  was  measured  at  various  times  in  1889 
and  found  to  vary  from  85  second-feet  in  the  spring  to  20  second-feet  in 
October.  This  was  a year  of  unusual  drought,  and  the  floods  were  very 
low  and  of  short  duration. 


rUERCO  RIVER. 

South  and  west  of  the  Jemez  is  the  Puerco,  a river  which  though 
draining  a large  area  is  dry  at  its  mouth  during  the  winter  and  early 
spring.  The  valley  is  uninhabited  from  the  mouth  as  far  north  as  the 
point  at  which  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Railroad  crosses  it.  The  water 
from  its  principal  tributary,  San  Jose  Creek,  sinks  within  a few  miles 
of  its  mouth,  although  it  is  the  largest  stream  in  that  part  of  the  Ter- 
ritory, and  when  others  were  dry  was  flowing  from  Cubero  to  its  mouth. 
For  40  miles  up  the  Puerco  no  water  could  be  found  in  February,  1889. 

The  divide  between  the  Rio  Grande  and  Puerco  in  its  lower  course, 
and  in  particular  in  the  vicinity  of  Albuquerque,  consists  of  a gently 
undulating  mesa  about  6 miles  or  less  in  width,  bounded  on  both  edges 
by  sandy  foothills.  The  valley  at  this  point  is  about  2 miles  wide,  has 
a gentle  slope,  and  the  soil  seems  excellent,  but  very  little  attempt  at 
farming  has  been  made  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  water. 

On  the  west  side  of  the  valley  are  deserted  ranches  where  some  irri- 
gation has  been  done  with  the  flood  waters  of  small  arroyos.  It  was 
evident  from  the  wheat  stubble  and  threshing  floor  that  crops  have 


276 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


been  raised.  Considerable  quantities  of  native  hay  are  usually  cut  by 
the  Mexicans  from  a broad,  gentle  valley  known  as  the  Canyon  del  Ojo. 
At  the  junction  of  the  Canyon  del  Ojo  with  the  Puerco  a Mexican  farmer 
has  put  in  a bank  about  200  feet  long  by  lit  feet  high  behind  which 
rain  and  Hood  water  is  caught.  This  he  lets  to  a cattle  owner  for  $200 
per  year. 

The  principal  tributary  of  the  Puerco  is  the  San  Jose,  or,  as  known 
at  the  head  waters,  Bluewater  Creek,  which  enters  from  the  west.  Be- 
low the  Big  Spring,  near  the  town  of  San  Jose,  this  creek  was  discharg- 
ing from  10  to  12  second-feet  in  February,  1889.  West  of  San  Jose,  up 
the  creek,  is  a broad  valley  expanding  toward  the  south.  The  creek 
bed  had  water  in  it,  but  usually  when  not  swelled  by  melting  snows  it 
is  dry  at  this  point.  Some  irrigation  is  done  by  the  Mexicans  at  the 
town  of  El  Rito,  about  15  miles  below  San  Jose,  but  it  is  insignificant 
in  amount. 

About  12  miles  below  San  Jose  and  between  it  and  El  Rito  is  the 
pueblo  of  Laguna,  whose  name,  Lake  Pueblo,  is  said  to  be  derived  from 
a former  sheet  of  water  made  by  an  artificial  dam  erected  by  the  Indians 
a few  miles  above  the  pueblo.  This  lake  was  probably  from  130  to  160 
acres  in  extent,  and  must  have  been  from  10  to  12  feet  deep  in  places. 
Nearly  a quarter  of  the  land  formerly  covered  by  the  water  from  this 
lake  is  now  occupied  by  crescent- shaped  hills  of  blown  sand.  The  dam 
was  washed  away  in  1859  or  1860,  and  has  not  been  rebuilt.  Crops  are 
grown  in  its  basin,  however,  and  a small  carp  pond  is  still  preserved. 

From  the  upper  end  of  the  San  Jose  Canyon  clear  to  the  head  of  the 
principal  tributary,  the  Bluewater,  along  the  line  of  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Railroad,  is  a valley  at  an  altitude  of  6,500  feet  and  of  varying 
width,  but  of  great  fertility.  A small  portion  is  covered  by  a lava  flow 
reaching  from  McCarty’s  west  and  north  to  Bluewater.  Water  for  this 
extensive  region  can  be  had  only  by  storage,  but  with  this  the  region 
will  become  wonderfully  productive.  At  present  there  are  few  inhab- 
itants besides  the  Laguna  and  Acoma  Indians  and  a settlement  of  Mex- 
icans around  Cubero.  The  San  Jose,  although  in  ordinary  seasons 
small,  must  discharge  an  enormous  quantity  of  flood  water,  for  its  drain- 
age area  is  very  great.  The  stream  flows  constantly  at  all  seasons  for 
some  3 miles  below  Laguna,  where  it  evaporates  in  summer. 

On  the  head  of  the  Puerco,  in  the  San  Joaquin  del  Nacimiento  grant, 
northwest  of  Jemez,  is  a beautiful  valley  covering  an  area  some  15  miles 
long  by  6 wide.  It  is  so  high  that  nothing  but  small  grain  can  be  raised, 
but  the  soil  is  extremely  rich,  and  could  a water  supply  be  obtained,  it 
would  become  a valuable  tract  of  land.  There  is,  however,  no  adequate 
water  supply  visible,  and  apparently  this  valley  Avill  long  remain  among 
the  undeveloped  resources  of  New  Mexico.  Farther  south  also  are  other 
valleys  and  bottom  lands  with  little  or  no  water  for  irrigation. 

The  Puerco  holds  a constant  stream  as  far  south  as  Casa  Salazar,  a 
point  almost  west  of  Jemez,  and  from  there  on  the  water  is  caught  by 


NEWELL.] 


WATER  SUPPLY  OF  RIO  GRANDE  VALLEY. 


277 


the  Mexicans  during  the  floods  in  brush  dams.  Each  year  brush  and 
rocks  are  put  in  the  bed  of  the  stream  and  are  filled  with  silt,  forming 
a rough  dam.  The  water  detained,  in  this  manner  is  used  for  irrigating, 
but  the  whole  arrangement  is  washed  away  in  the  winter  and  the  process 
is  repeated  the  next  spring.  This  system  is  also  used  at  points  along 
the  San  Jose  Creek.  It  is  found  to  be  the  only  one  practicable,  as  it 
would  be  very  difficult  to  put  in  a permanent  dam  on  the  day  founda- 
tions, which  are  over  100  feet  deep,  and  rock  does  not  appear  anywhere 
near  the  river.  As  a whole,  the  land  in  the  Puerco  Valley  seems  of 
excellent  quality,  and  less  alkaline  than  the  land  in  the  Rio  Grande 
V alley. 

There  is  a large  amount  of  land  farther  down  in  the  Puerco  Valley 
with  a gradual  slope  toward  the  river,  in  all,  perhaps,  upward  of  100 
square  miles.  The  strip  is  probably  70  miles  long,  and  averages  about 
a mile  and  a half  in  width.  Little  or  nothing  can  be  done  with  tins  un- 
less a large  amount  of  water  can  be  stored,  and  in  many  parts  of  the 
valley  there  are  few  places  favorable  for  the  erection  of  dams.  Even  if 
a sufficient  surplus  of  water  could  be  stored  near  the  headwaters  to 
bring  this  land  under  ditch,  still  the  water  would  have  to  be  conveyed 
some  SO  or  90  miles  to  reach  the  lower  part  of  the  valley,  and  it  could 
be  more  easily  brought  upon  one  of  the  mesas  above,  where  it  could 
command  a greater  amount  of  land  in  a more  compact  form.  The  land 
throughout  the  Puerco  Valley  is  of  excellent  quality,  but  the  irrigation 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  valley  seems  to  be  confined  to  the  small  patches 
to  which  water  held  by  the  brush  dams  can  be  conducted. 

RfSSUMfi  OP  WATER  SUPPLY. 

To  recapitulate,  the  principal  sources  of  water  supply  above  and  ad- 
joining the  Albuquerque  Valley  are  as  follows:  The  Chama  and  Jemez 
are  the  only  tributaries  coming  into  the  Rio  Grande  between  Embudo 
and  San  Marcial  that  flow  any  considerable  amount  of  water  except  in 
times  of  flood;  the  Santa  Cruz,  San  Ildefonso,  and  Santa  Clara,  enter 
the  Rio  Grande  in  the  Espanola  Valley,  but  are  insignificant  in  size; 
the  Gallisteo  and  Salado  discharge  a considerable  quantity  of  water 
in  flood,  but  ordinarily  are  mere  arroyos  for  miles  from  their  mouth. 

Between  Embudo  and  San  Marcial  it  has  been  estimated  that  there 
are  about  400  square  miles  of  irrigable  land  in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley. 
This  land  extends  in  a strip  of  over  200  miles  in  length,  and  will  average 
about  2 miles  in  width.  The  White  Rock  Canyon,  extending  from  San 
Ildefonso  to  Pena  Blanca,  and  separating  the  Espanola  and  Albuquer- 
que Valleys,  is  the  only  considerable  canyon. 

The  methods  of  irrigation  throughout  tin1  whole  valley  are  very  similar 
in  character;  the  ditches  are  short,  and  the  water  is  used  first  on  the 
lowest  levels,  and  gradually  as  more  land  is  needed  the  higher  levels 
are  reached.  The  water  is  taken  from  the  main  ditch  and  applied  di- 
rectly to  the  highest  of  the  small  squares  into  which  the  tilled  land  is 


278 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


divided,  lateral  ditches  being  uncommon.  When  this  one  is  full,  the 
surplus  water  is  allowed  to  run  into  the  next  square  below  it,  and  so  on 
until  the  lowest  square  is  reached.  Much  damage  is  done  annually  to 
the  lower  ditches  by  the  overflowing  of  the  river  and  the  consequent 
filling  up  or  washing  out  of  the  ditches. 

In  short,  irrigation  along  the  Rio  Grande  is  limited  to  narrow  strips 
on  either  side  of  the  stream.  The  valleys  are  narrow,  and  the  amount 
of  land  with  gentle  slope  suited  to  irrigation  is  comparatively  small. 
The  amount  of  surface  water  that  stands  in  ponds  through  the  lower 
part  of  the  valley  shows  that  in  places,  at  least,  considerable  drainage 
is  necessary,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  many  of  the  native  cultivators  are  able 
to  make  any  outlay  in  draining  aud  improving  their  land,  in  addition  to 
the  yearly  expense  for  repairs  to  the  acequias. 

MESAS  ALONG  THE  RIO  GRANDE. 

East  of  the  Albuquerque  Valley  is  a long  mesa  running  from  the  San- 
dia  Mountains  on  the  north  to  Socorro  on  the  south,  and  lying  at  an  ele- 
vation of  from  300  to  600  feet  or  more  above  the  river.  There  is  much 
fertile  land  on  this  mesa,  but  it  lies  so  high  that  water  can  not  be  brought 
upon  it  except  at  enormous  expense. 

South  of  this  is  the  Jornada  del  Muerto,  the  largest  unbroken  mesa 
in  New  Mexico,  extending  from  Carthage  on  the  north  to  the  vicinity  of 
Fort  Selden  on  the  south,  a distance  of  about  100  miles.  It  is  in  places 
35  miles  in  width,  and  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Sierra  Oscura,  San 
Andres,  and  Organ  Mountains,  and  on  the  west  by  the  smaller  range 
of  mountains  bordering  the  Rio  Grande  or  by  the  river  itself.  The  sur- 
face is  to  the  eye  apparently  level,  and  is  covered  for  the  greater  part 
of  the  year  by  a grass,  furnishing  feed  for  large  herds  of  cattle.  Wells 
have  been  drilled  at  various  points,  and  water  struck  at  a depth  of  about 
300  feet,  but  this  is  often  so  impregnated  with  salts  as  to  be  worthless. 

The  preliminary  examinations  made  by  this  Survey  show  that  in  all 
probability  it  will  be  impracticable  to  bring  water  from  the  river  upon 
this  land,  both  on  account  of  the  expense  and  the  deficiency  of  supply, 
and  these  level  tracts  with  deep  soil  are  apparently  absolutely  worth- 
less for  agricultural  purposes.  The  mountains  bordering  the  plain  are 
low  and  unfitted  for  storing  water  on  account  of  the  uncertain  rainfall, 
and  the  snowfall  does  not  accumulate.  Many  arroyos  enter  the  plains 
but  none  cross  them,  and  rarely  the  water  from  a “cloud  burst”  in 
these  mountains  reaches  the  Rio  Grande. 

The  Mesa  Cuchillo  Negro  embraces  a large  extent  of  country  west  of 
the  Rio  Grande  and  opposite  the  Jornada  del  Muerto,  lying  along  Rio 
Alamosa,  Rio  Cuchillo  Negro,  Rio  Palomas,  Arroyo  Seco,  Rio  Animas, 
and  Rio  Perches.  The  valleys  on  these  streams  are  all  narrow  and  the 
bluffs  high,  above  these  being  mesas  containing  much  good  laud.  As 
the  fall  of  these  streams  is  rapid,  it  may  be  practicable  to  take  water 
out  of  them  on  to  the  mesas,  but  before  this  can  be  done  a patient  study 


NEWELL.] 


RIO  GRANDE  IN  SOUTHERN  NEW  MEXICO. 


279 


and  examination  of  the  ground  must  be  made.  The  streams  all  head  on 
the  continental  divide,  and  furnish  a spring  How  which,  if  stored,  could 
be  used  on  these  mesas. 

The  valley  bottoms  lie  from  300  to  500  feet  below  the  mesas  and  have 
precipitous  sides,  thus  making  it  difficult  to  take  a ditch  out  of  the 
river  and  carry  it  over  the  mesas.  All  mesa  land  must  be  irrigated,  if 
at  all,  by  waters  stored  in  the  upper  valleys  of  the  small  streams.  The 
development  of  irrigation  work  here,  therefore,  must  consist  in  the  de- 
signing of  small  systems  of  storage  reservoirs  and  canals,  work  requir- 
ing much  time  in  the  examination  of  the  country. 

MESILLA  VALLEY. 

After  leaving  the  Albuquerque  Valley,  for  some  miles  below  San  Mar- 
cial,  the  river  flows  through  a comparatively  narrow  bottom,  which  is 
not  more  than  a quarter  of  a mile  wide  and  is  bordered  in  places  by 
steep  rocky  bluffs,  these  disappearing  farther  down  the  river.  Ten 
miles  below  San  Marcial  the  bottom  lands  nearly  or  quite  disappear, 
and  on  the  left  side  the  Fra  Cristobal  Mountains  rise  abruptly  from 
the  water’s  edge;  while  on  the  right  or  west  side  the  ground  rises  gradu- 
ally from  the  river’s  bank  to  the  foothills.  The  river  channel  continues 
of  this  character  to  a point  below  the  little  Mexican  town  of  San  Jose 
where,  after  contracting,  the  valley  opens  again  to  a width  of  about 
half  a mile,  and  abruptly  contracting  again  the  river  enters  a canyon. 

This  canyon  extends  for  about  0 miles  and  varies  in  width  from  500  to 
1,500  feet  at  the  high-water  mark.  The  walls  of  the  canyon  are  of  gravel 
and  conglomerate,  overlaid  by  lava,  which  in  some  places,  particularly 
on  the  left  bank,  reaches  a thickness  of  40  feet.  The  walls  at  the  highest 
part  are  about  100  feet  high,  decreasing  to  50  or  60  feet  in  places,  and 
are  cut  by  arroyos. 

Below  this  gorge  the  river  again  widens,  and  there  are  patches  of 
irrigable  land  at  the  mouths  of  small  creeks,  but  the  river  bottom  itself 
is  narrow,  and  the  river  bed,  being  nearly  half  a mile  in  width,  occupies 
nearly  all  of  the  narrow  valley. 

At  Santa  Barbara,  about  10  or  12  miles  above  Rincon,  there  was 
formerly  a large  Mexican  settlement  in  the  valley,  which  here  widens 
to  a breadth  of  nearly  4 miles.  The  inhabitants  are  now  gone  and  the 
village  is  in  ruins.  The  probable  reason  is  that  their  land  became  so 
water-soaked  and  saturated  with  alkali  that  they  could  raise  nothing. 
By  exercising  a little  care  in  drainage  a few  new  settlers  are  now  farm- 
ing just  below. 

These  alternations  of  narrow  gorges  and  bottom  lands  continue  nearly 
to  Fort  Selden.  In  this  course  are  points  at  which  the  river  bottom 
lands  are  between  5 and  6 miles  in  width.  A very  small  part  of  this, 
however,  is  cultivated;  probably  there  are  not  100  acres  of  crops  irri- 
gated. There  are  several  points  at  which  reservoirs  could  be  made  by 
placing  dams  across  constrictions  in  the  channel.  Usually,  however, 


280 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


the  bed  of  the  stream  is  deeply  tilled  with  gravel,  and  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  obtain  good  foundations.  These  reservoir  sites  on  the  main  river 
can  be  utilized  for  storing  water  for  the  Mesilla  Valley,  thus  allowing 
the  summer  flow  of  the  river  to  be  freely  used  on  lands  farther  north. 

Below  Fort  Selden  the  valley  opens,  and  continues,  in  general,  broad 
and  fertile  down  to  the  constriction  at  El  Paso.  In  this  course  is  the 
Mesilla  Valley,  one  of  the  best  localities  for  fruit-growing  along  the 
Rio  Grande.  This  valley,  stretching  from  Fort  Selden  reservation  on 
the  north  to  the  Texas  line  on  the  south,  a distance  of  35  miles,  and 
with  a width  varying  from  8 to  10  miles,  includes  land  equal'to  any  in 
the  United  States  for  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  many  varieties  of 
fruit.  Below  the  Texas  line  to  El  Paso,  15  miles  farther  down  the 
river,  the  soil  is  nearly  equally  as  fertile,  but  remains  almost  unculti- 
vated. 

The  Mesilla  Valley  contains  probably,  all  things  considered,  the  most 
valuable  land  along  the  Rio  Grande,  and  the  necessity  of  providing  an 
ample  and  permanent  water  supply  is  unquestioned.  The  soil  is  of 
wonderful  fertility  and  great  depth,  but  agriculture  has  made  slow 
advances,  on  account  of  the  uncertainty  of  the  future  supply  of  water. 
The  continued  diversions  along  the  river  for  hundreds  of  miles  above 
this  valley  render  the  inhabitants  apprehensive  as  to  their  future.  At 
the  same  time  that  water  is  supplied  plans  must  be  made  for  drainage, 
for  the  rich  bottom  lands  tend  to  become  water-logged,  developing  the 
alkaline  crust,  as  is  the  case  in  valleys  below  Albuquerque. 

The  amount  of  water  flowing  out  from  the  Mesilla  Valley  for  the 
last  two  years  is  shown  graphically  on  PI.  lxiii,  the  means  and  ex- 
tremes for  each  month  being  given  in  the  tables  appended.  The  gaug- 
ing station  is  located  at  Fort  Bliss,  a short  distance  above  the  town  of 
El  Paso,  the  measurements  being  made  above  the  Mexican  dam  at  that 
place  and  above  the  head  works  of  all  ditches  or  canals.  This  diagram 
should  be  compared  with  that  showing  the  discharge  at  Embudo,  and 
also  that  for  Del  Norte,  the  similarity  of  these  being  evident  at  a glance. 
The  early  spring  floods  at  El  Paso  are  especially  notable,  these  evi- 
dently coming  from  tributaries  below  Embudo,  since  they  do  not  appear 
on  the  sheet  for  that  station. 

In  briefly  reviewing  the  use  of  water  along  the  whole  Rio  Grande  in 
Colorado  and  New  Mexico,  it  is  stated  by  Mr.  W.  W.  Follettthat  in  the  San 
Luis  Valley,  besides  numerous  ditches,  there  are  five  large  canals  with 
a combined  carrying  capacity  of  8,000  second-feet,  although  few  now 
carry  over  half  their  maximum  flow.  Even  then  4,000  second-feet 
is  being  used  in  this  valley,  but  of  course  much  of  this  water  finds  its 
way  back  into  the  river  at  or  above  the  canyon.  Between  Embudo  and 
San  Marcial  about  1,000  second-feet  are  used,  and  in  the  Mesilla 
Valley,  from  Rincon  to  El  Paso,  000  second-feet  are  needed.  At  El 
Paso  the  new  ditch,  which  owns  the  water  rights  of  the  old  ditches  on 
the  United  States  side,  has  a capacity  of  about  400  second-feet,  and  the 
Mexican  ditches  have  a capacity  of  about  800  second-feet. 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  RIO  GRANDE  AT  EL  PASO,  TEXAS. 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 

10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25 


UBfiAfiY 
Of  THE 


UNIVERSITY  of 


ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.]  DISTRICT  BETWEEN  RIO  GRANDE  AND  RECOS. 


281 


Thus  there  is  needed  to  supply  the  demand  below  Embudo  3,100 
second-feet,  as  roughly  estimated.  Seepage  will  cause  some  water  to 
be  used  many  times  over,  but  even  then,  except  in  years  of  maximum 
flow,  there  will  be  a shortage  of  water.  Then  those  valleys  to  suffer 
first  will  be  the  Mesilla  and  the  Ysleta,  in  which  the  products  are 
worth  many  times  as  much  per  acre  as  those  of  the  land  on  which  the 
water  has  been  used.  This  shows  the  urgent  need  for  reservoirs.  With 
them  the  Territory  of  New  Mexico  can  support  a much  larger  population 
in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley,  but  without  them  her  progress  will  be  slow. 

GYPSUM  PLAINS  DISTRICT.1 

In  southern  New  Mexico,  between  the  Rio  Grande  and  Pecos,  are  ex- 
tensive deserts,  which  for  want  of  abetter  name  may  be  distinguished 
as  the  Gypsum  Plains.  These  plains  are  the  bottom  lands  of  a vast 
basin  completely  surrounded  by  hills  and  mountains,  and  extending 
from  about  White  Oaks  nearly  to  El  Paso,  in  Texas,  a distance  of  more 
than  125  miles,  with  a width  varying  from  10  to  30  miles.  On  the  north 
are  the  Oscuro  and  Jicarilla  Mountains  and  foothills ; on  the  east  the 
Sierra  Blanca  and  Sacramento  Mountains;  on  the  south  the  Guadalupe 
and  El  Paso  Mountains  and  foothills  of  the  Hueco  Mountains;  and  on 
the  west  the  Organ,  San  Andres,  and  Oscuro  Mountains.  From  each 
of  these  ranges  numerous  streams  flow  into  the  basin,  but  the  water  all 
disappears  before  reaching  the  center.  Near  the  western  margin  of  the 
plain,  at  the  base  of  the  San  Andres  range,  is  an  extensive  salt  marsh, 
and  to  the  south  of  this  are  the  so-called  White  Sands,  a gypsum  for- 
mation. 

Portions  of  this  plain  can  in  time  become  agricultural  land  by  stor- 
ing water  among  the  higher  mountains.  The  Sacramento,  White,  and 
Organ  Mountains  have  a considerable  depth  of  snow  each  winter  and 
a heavy  rainfall  in  the  summer.  These  ranges  are  the  only  ones  in  this 
vicinity  which  otter  opportunities  for  storing  water. 

In  the  center  of  the  Gypsum  Plains  near  the  northern  end  is  a How 
of  basalt,  which,  from  all  outward  signs,  appears  to  be  recent,  so  modern 
in  fact  that  there  is  a popular  belief  to  the  effect  that  it  has  been 
ejected  since  the  Spanish  invasion.  At  a point  15  or  20  miles  north  of 
the  flow  are  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  town ; and  it  is  reported  that  traces 
of  an  extensive  irrigating  system  may  still  be  seen  near  the  town.  At 
present  there  is  no  water  near  the  place,  and  the  canals  are  said  to  be 
tilted  at  different  angles.  The  basalt  stream  is  fully  30  or  35  miles  in 
length,  and  has  a width  varying  from  one-quarter  of  a mile  to  4 miles. 

On  the  northeast  of  the  plains  is  the  Sierra  Blanca  Peak,  the  highest 
in  the  White  Mountains,  having  an  elevation  of  11,892  feet,  and  wear- 
ing a cap  of  snow  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  There  are  nu- 
merous peaks  over  8,000  feet  high  upon  which  the  snowfall  is  very  deep. 


'From  report  l>y  It.  S.  Tarr,  1889. 


282 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


The  streams  flowing  from  these  mountains  towards  the  west  sink 
shortly  after  leaving  the  foothills.  Among  these  the  most  important 
are  Tularosa,  Bonito,  and  Ties  Rios.  On  each  of  these  along  the  lower 
valleys  farming  is  done  by  irrigation,  and  higher  up  in  the  mountain 
valleys  good  crops  of  oats,  corn,  and  potatoes  are  raised  without  irriga- 
tion. Among  the  lofty  peaks,  deeply  cut  by  erosion,  covered  with  snow 
and  drained  by  numerous  constantly  flowing  streams,  are  probably  a 
number  of  valuable  reservoir  sites.  These  will  be  of  great  utility,  for 
to  the  south  and  southwest  are  the  plains  of  almost  unlimited  extent 
at  present,  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  water,  not  even  grazed  by 
cattle. 

PECOS  RIVER. 

GENERAL  TOPOGRAPHY. 

The  Pecos,1  rising  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Santa  Fe  Range,  flows 
for  a while  as  a typical  mountain  stream  through  narrow  valleys  and 
deeply  cut  gorges,  then  leaving  the  tilted  rocks,  cuts  the  horizontal 
strata  of  the  mesa  country,  this  horizontal  character  of  the  rocks  pre- 
vailing throughout  the  Pecos  Valley.  Among  the  sandstones  the  coun- 
try is  eroded  and  broken  by  arroyos,  and  the  amount  of  agricultural 
land  is  necessarily  small. 

Below  Fort  Sumner,  however,  the  topography  of  the  valley  changes. 
The  canyon-like  walls  disappear,  and  are  replaced  by  low  rolling  hills. 
The  ascent  from  the  river  on  each  side  becomes  more  and  more 
gentle  toward  the  south,  until  near  Roswell  there  is  an  imperceptible 
gradation  from  the  flood  plain  to  the  prairie,  this  change  in  the  topog- 
raphy being  due  to  change  in  the  character  of  the  rocks,  limestone  and 
gypsum  prevailing  throughout  this  flue  agricultural  land.  Arroyos 
and  gulches  become  rare  and  canyons  are  practically  unknown,  the 
passage  from  canyons  to  prairie  land  being  very  gradual. 

The  drainage  of  the  lower  Pecos  in  New  Mexico  is  very  imperfect, 
and  there  are  broad  tracts  of  country  having  no  surface  drainage  what- 
soever. The  water  sinks  into  limestone  rocks,  and  establishes  an 
underground  drainage.  The  consequence  of  this  is  the  formation  of 
numerous  shallow  “dry  lakes,”  which  are  in  reality  sink  holes,  many 
of  these  draining  large  areas.  These  contain  water  each  year,  and  it 
is  a constant  surprise  to  the  people  of  the  country  that  they  do  not  leave 
an  alkaline  crust  upon  disappearing,  as  would  result  if  the  water 
escaped  by  evaporation.  East  of  the  Pecos  is  the  rolling  prairie 
country  of  the  Staked  Plain,  and  to  the  west  the  White  and  other 
mountain  chains  rise  out  of  the  broken  plain. 

The  Pecos  Valley  is  without  doubt  one  of  the  finest  in  New  Mexico, 
yet  it  has  been  unknown  and  little  developed.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  it  has  been  for  years,  and  indeed  until  very  recently,  the  border 
land  of  civilization.  Apaches,  Comanches,  and  Navajos  had  their  battle 


1 From  report  by  R.  S.  Tarr,  1889. 


NEWELL.] 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  PECOS  VALLEY. 


283 


grounds  hero  and  made  war  upon  their  common  enemy,  the  white  man. 
Life  and  property  were  not  safe,  and  none  but  the  boldest  of  frontiers- 
men had  the  hardihood  to  brave  the  danger,  the  peaceful  agriculturist 
finding  no  secure  place. 

The  fine  grazing  land,  the  abundance  of  water,  and  the  wildness  of  the 
life  attracted  only  the  adventurous  cattlemen,  who  came  in  from  Texas, 
Arkansas,  and  the  surrounding  territories,  and  developed  an  extensive 
cattle  industry.  Farming  being  considered  as  an  interference  with 
cattle  raising,  farmers  were  prevented  even  by  violence  from  settling, 
and  the  country  was  held  for  cattle  only;  but  by  the  overstocking  of  the 
ranges  and  the  low  price  of  cattle  the  owners  have  become  so  impover- 
ished that  they  are  in  many  cases  forced  to  look  to  other  means  of  self- 
support,  and  efforts  are  now  being  made  to  develop  agricultural  re- 
sources. 

On  the  middle  Pecos  near  the  river  are  two  classes  of  land — bottom 
land  and  mesa.  On  the  lower  Pecos  the  bottom  land  is  also  present, 
but  the  mesa  is  replaced  by  prairie.  In  both  divisions  on  approaching 
the  mountains  the  country  becomes  broken  into  foothills.  The  bottom 
land  is  irrigable,  yet  not  one  acre  in  a hundred  has  been  reclaimed. 
It  has  a rich  deposit  of  silt,  uniformly  level,  and  capable  of  a high  state 
of  cultivation.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  between  250,000  and  300,000 
acres  of  this  land  lying  in  a narrow  strip  on  the  middle  Pecos,  but  broad- 
ening out  southward  to  an  average  width  of  probably  2 miles  or  more.  A 
portion  of  it  is  subject  to  overflow,  especially  along  the  lower  Pecos.  In 
such  places  there  is  considerable  alkali,  though  by  no  means  as  much 
as  in  similar  portions  on  the  Kio  Grande. 

The  mesa  land  has  a fairly  good  soil,  in  general  rather  thin,  and  com- 
posed entirely  of  weathered  sandstone.  Being  high  above  the  river  and 
deeply  cut  by  arroyos,  it  is  not  well  placed  nor  suited  for  irrigation,  and 
it  is  doubtful  if  any  considerable  portion  of  this  upland  country  will  be 
tilled.  The  prairie  country,  on  account  of  its  excellent  soil,  level  char- 
acter, and  slight  elevation  above  the  river,  is  well  suited  for  irrigation 
and  offers  excellent  opportunities  for  reclamation. 

CLIMATE  AND  WATER  SUPPLY. 

The  climate  of  the  Pecos  Valley  is  typical  of  the  arid  country  in  which 
the  rainfall  is  from  12  to  15  inches  per  year.  In  descending  the  valley 
both  the  elevation  and  the  latitude  become  less,  and  there  is  a gradual 
change  toward  a warmer  climate.  The  entire  valley  is  well  suited  to 
grape  culture,  and  at  Boswell  the  climate  is  similar  to  that  of  Las  Cruces 
on  the  Kio  Grande.  Some  snow  falls  every  winter,  but  in  the  southern 
portion  of  the  valley  it  rapidly  disappears.  The  rainfall  comes  mainly 
in  June,  July,  and  August,  in  the  form  of  showers,  and  is  therefore 
extremely  variable  and  uncertain. 

The  main  Pecos  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Gallinas  with  the 
Pecos  at  La  Junta.  Water  flows  perennially  in  these  streams,  at  least 


284 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


as  far  down  as  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  Railroad,  but  be- 
tween this  line  and  La  Junta  the  water  entirely  disappears  by  evapora- 
tion and  seepage  during  many  months  of  the  year.  On  January  30, 1889, 
the  bed  of  the  Pecos  at  Las  Colonias  was  so  dry  that  a well  15  feet  deep 
barely  furnished  a water  supply  for  the  stock  and  citizens  of  that  town. 
A mile  or  two  above  Eden  some  small  springs  flow  into  the  Pecos,  and 
from  this  point  the  river  channel  constantly  contains  water.  The  river 
valley  shows  signs  of  powerful  erosion,  due  to  the  floods  of  the  spring 
and  summer  months.  North  of  Puerto  de  Luna  the  river  has  a rapid 
slope,  and  is  kept  within  its  banks  in  time  of  flood,  but  below  this  point 
the  water  becomes  more  and  more  sluggish  and  muddy.  In  time  of  flood 
it  overflows  the  flood  plains  extensively,  but  in  low  water  meanders 
about  among  sand  bars  in  the  river  bed.  Above  the  Agua  Negra  Chi- 
quita,  near  Santa  Rosa,  the  water  is  practically  free  from  alkali,  but  this 
stream  and  every  one  south  of  it  add  to  its  alkaline  character. 

UPPER  fRIISUTARIES. 

The  most  important  tributaries  of  the  middle  Pecos,  because  of  the 
constant  source  of  supply,  are  the  Agua  Negra  and  Agua  Negra  Chiquita, 
entering  just  above  Puerto  de  Luna.  The  latter  on  the  east  side  of  the 
river  receives  an  unfailing  supply  of  water  from  two  large  alkaline 
springs.  The  smaller  rises  out  of  the  ground  in  a canyon  about  three 
miles  from  the  Pecos,  and  carries,  it  is  estimated,  C second-feet.  The 
larger  spring  has  its  source  about  a mile  and  a half  from  the  Pecos,  at 
the  base  of  a low  sandstone  cliff  on  the  edge  of  an  alkaline  marsh.  It 
is  remarkable  for  its  size  and  depth,  the  basin  of  the  spring  having  a 
diameter  of  about  70  feet,  and  a stream  of  water  flows  from  it  carrying 
about  15  second-feet,  receiving  additions  from  numerous  small  springs 
on  the  way  through  the  marsh  to  the  Pecos. 

The  Agua  Negra  flows  from  the  Canyon  Pintado,  a very  long  arroyo 
on  the  west  side  of  the  Pecos,  draining  a large  area  of  mesa  country  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Manzano  Mountains.  During  the  summer  rains, 
when  great  floods  of  water  rush  down  the  canyon,  it  is  reported  that 
little  or  none  reaches  the  Pecos  through  the  canyon,  the  greater  part 
sinking  into  the  arroyo  bed,  at  one  point,  it  is  said,  actually  flowing 
into  the  ground  through  a hole.  Several  springs  appear  at  various 
places,  but  they  soon  sink  into  the  sand.  About  3 miles  from  the  mouth 
of  the  canyon  a large  and  constantly  flowing  spring  supplies  a stream  of 
water  of  about  7 second-feet.  This  may  be  in  part  the  water  which 
disappears  farther  up  the  canyon,  but  its  constancy  would  seem  to  indi- 
cate some  additional  and  more  distant  source.  It  is  a clear  alkaline 
water,  which  from  its  black  color  has  been  called  Agua  Negra  by  the 
Mexicans. 

These  two  streams  and  numerous  smaller  springs  furnish  the  Pecos 
with  a considerable  body  of  water.  At  Puerto  de  Luna  the  river  in 
early  Feburary  is  usually  150  to  200  feet  wide  and  2 feet  deep  in  places, 


NEWELL.] 


TRIBUTARIES  OF  THE  PECOS. 


285 


with  an  average  depth  of  one-half  foot  or  less,  and  a velocity  of  not 
more  than  3 feet  per  second.  Its  bed  is  of  changing  sand,  and  is  fully 
200  yards  wide  between  the  flood  plain  banks,  showing  that  powerful 
floods  must  till  the  river  at  times  when  it  overflows  its  banks.  It  is  a 
treacherous  stream,  more  difficult  to  control  than  even  the  Bio  Grande. 
Hear  Puerto  de  Luna  it  is  continually  encroaching  on  its  banks,  and 
portions  of  several  farms  have  been  washed  away  within  a few  years. 

Excepting  occasional  small  springs  from  the  Agua  Negra  and  Arroyo 
Yeso,  there  are  no  living  tributaries  to  the  Pecos  below  Fort  Sumner 
on  the  west  side  for  a distance  of  50  miles.  The  Yeso  carries  a small 
body  of  water  of  not  more  than  2 or  3 second-feet.  Various  arroyos, 
creeks,  and  springs  of  alkaline  water  flow  into  the  Pecos  between  the 
Yeso  and  the  Spring  Biver  at  Boswell,  but  none  of  them  are  of  impor- 
tance, few  reaching  the  river,  and  these  few  carrying  mere  threads  of 
water. 

At  Boswell  is  the  finest  and  most  easily  controlled  supply  of  water 
in  the  territory,  and  an  equally  good  body  of  land  to  be  irrigated. 
There  are  five  sources  of  water  supply,  the  Pecos,  the  Hondo,  the 
North  Spring  Biver,  the  Berenda,  and  the  South  Spring  Biver.  The 
Pecos  is  treacherous  and  difficult  to  control,  and  it  is  said  never  to  fail 
even  above  the  Spring  Biver,  although  in  summer  it  is  often  very  low. 

The  Berenda  Biver  is  one  of  the  Spring  Bivers,  all  of  which  have  their 
source  in  small  ponds  supplied  by  perennial  springs.  The  sources  of  all 
are  in  the  midst  of  the  prairie,  within  a few  miles  ot  each  other  and  the 
Pecos.  The  Berenda,  the  northernmost  of  the  three,  had  in  February, 
1889,  a width  of  12  feet,  an  average  depth  of  2|  feet,  and  a surface 
velocity  of  1 -9  feet  per  second,  giving  approximately  a discharge  of  50 
cubic  feet  per  second. 

The  North  Spring  Biver  rises  in  springs  having  a temperature  some- 
what higher  than  the  average  air.  At  2 p.  m.,  February  9,  1889,  when 
the  air  temperature  was  59°  the  water  temperature  was  67°.  The 
union  of  the  streams  from  the  several  springs  forms  the  North  Spring 
Biver,  which  had  at  that  time  a discharge  of  approximately  50  second- 
feet.  Both  the  Berenda  and  the  North  Spring  rivers  empty  into  the 
Hondo  before  reaching  the  Pecos,  but  the  South  Spring  Biver  flows 
directly  into  the  Pecos,  the  discharge  being  73  second-feet. 

The  Hondo,  formed  by  the  confluence  of  numerous  brooks  rising  in 
the  White  Mountains,  flows  for  some  distance  through  the  foothills, 
and  then  enters  the  prairie  country  west  of  Boswell.  Just  before 
emptying  into  the  Pecos  it  receives  the  water  of  the  Berenda  and  North 
Spring  rivers.  In  the  summer  above  the  mouth  of  these  rivers  it  becomes 
very  low  and  the  bed  even  dries.  In  1880  it  was  dry  for  two  months ; 
in  1887  for  three  weeks;  in  1888  for  only  one.  On  the  prairie  it  flows 
in  a tortuous  course  through  a narrow  channel,  cut  in  loose  gravel, 
from  8 to  15  feet  deep. 

Float  observations  at  Long’s  Bancli,  10  miles  west  of  Boswell  on  the 


280 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


Hondo,  showed  that  the  river  on  February  10,  1889,  discharged  48 
second-feet.  Below  the  junction  with  the  Spring  rivers  it  carries  about 
200  second-feet  at  the  point  where  a large  ditch  is  to  be  taken  out. 

The  discrepancy  of  52  cubic  feet  per  second  between  the  measurement 
of  the  combined- flow  of  the  Hondo  and  its  two  tributaries  and  of  the 
separate  measurements  is  mainly  due  to  the  increase  in  size  of  the 
stream  between  the  points  where  the  observations  were  taken,  due  to 
the  supply  from  numerous  small  springs.  There  are  many  of  these  in 
sight,  and  undoubtedly  many  which  do  not  appear,  and  these  swell  the 
size  of  all  the  streams  considerably.  They  are  all  alkaline  and  warmer 
than  the  air  temperature,  one  of  them  being  Gl°  and  another  62°. 

The  entire  absence  of  tributaries  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Pecos  is 
very  striking,  and  is  due  no  doubt  to  the  pervious  character  of  the  soil 
of  the  Staked  Plains,  upon  which  no  drainage  system  is  established. 
The  only  supply  of  water  which  the  Pecos  receives  from  this  side  comes 
from  a few  small  alkaline  springs  or  from  a small  arroyo  which  carries 
water  once  or  twice  in  a season. 

LOWER  TRIBUTARIES  IN  NEW  MEXICO. 

Below  Boswell  the  first  stream  of  importance  is  the  Bio  Felix,  which 
rises  among  the  southeastern  foot-hills  of  the  White  Mountains,  and 
after  a few  miles  sinks  and  does  not  again  appear  until  within  4 miles 
of  its  mouth,  a distance  of  25  miles,  where  it  appears  again  as  a series 
of  springs. 

The  Penasco  takes  its  rise  in  the  Sacramento  Mountains,  and  formerly 
flowed  40  miles  as  a fair-sized  brook,  then  entering  a strip  of  marshy 
land  10  to  12  miles  long  it  disappeared.  There  was  practically  no  con- 
nection between  the  Upper  and  Lower  Penasco,  the  latter  commencing 
in  a series  of  springs  about  12  miles  from  the  Pecos.  A few  years  ago 
a cattle  company  cut  a ditch  connecting  the  Upper  and  Lower  Penasco, 
and  since  then  there  is  a continuous  stream  with  water  running  30  miles 
farther  than  formerly. 

The  Seven  Bivers  are  seven  small  springs  in  the  prairie,  from  each 
of  which  a small  stream  flows  for  a short  distance,  then  sinks.  About 
35  miles  below  Seven  Bivers  is  the  Black  Biver,  which  drains  a portion 
of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Guadalupe  Mountains.  It  is  larger  than  the 
Berenda,  and  carries  an  unfailing  supply  of  water.  This  river  is  about 
35  miles  long,  but  is  a small  stream  to  within  16  miles  of  the  Pecos, 
where  its  volume  is  considerably  increased  by  numerous  springs.  It 
flows  through  a series  of  lakes,  and  is  subject  to  extensive  floods  on 
account  of  the  large  area  which  it  drains.  A small  stream,  the  Blue 
Biver,  flows  into  the  Black  Biver  a few  miles  from  its  mouth.  The 
Delaware  is  the  last  stream  to  enter  the  Pecos  in  New  Mexico,  only 
about  7 miles  being  in  this  Territory.  It  is  larger  than  the  Berenda 
at  Boswell. 

From  this  brief  description  it  will  be  seen  that  the  constant,  never- 


NEWELL.] 


IRRIGATION  ON  THE  PECOS. 


287 


failing  supply  of  water  in  the  Pecos  cpmes  from  springs  which  must 
receive  their  supply  from  a great  distance.  This  is  owing  to  the  pecul- 
iar structure  of  the  country  and  the  prevalence  of  the  easily  dissolved 
limestones,  which  allow  the  waters  to  make  underground  channels  for 
themselves  and  thus  How  for  considerable  distances  out  of  sight.  The 
melting  snows  and  summer  rains  furnish  a variable  supply  which  fills 
the  channels  and  frequently  overflows  the  flood-plains  of  the  Pecos  and 
its  tributaries.  The  river  is  alkaline  on  account  of  the  character  of  the 
springs.  No  silt  is  received  during  a portion  of  the  year  from  any  tribu- 
taries except  the  Hondo  and  possibly  the  large  streams  south  of  it,  yet 
the  Pecos  is  muddy  to  an  extreme,  being  busily  employed  in  removing 
a portion  of  the  mud  brought  down  the  arroyos  in  vast  quantities  after 
every  rain. 

AGRICULTURE  ALONG  THE  PECOS. 

The  agriculturist  who  needs  the  water  of  the  Upper  Pecos  River  for 
irrigation  finds  himself  confronted  by  almost  insurmountable  difficulties. 
Even  the  patience  of  the  Mexican  is  exhausted  by  the  freaks  of  this 
stream,  and  his  brush  dams  are  certainly  not  a success.  Above  Anton 
Chico  the  Mexicans  succeed  in  irrigating  small  patches  of  land,  but  all 
their  methods  are  crude  and  their  results  are  unimportant. 

Below  Anton  Chico  all  the  irrigation  is  in  the  hands  of  Mexicans  as 
far  south  as  Fort  Sumuer.  A short  distance  north  of  Anton  Chico  a 
few  Mexicans  succeed  in  raising  occasional  crops  of  oats  and  corn  with- 
out irrigation,  but  farming  on  this  plan  is  not  a success  there. 

At  Whitmore’s  ranch  are  the  (f  allin  as  Springs,  which  boil  up  through 
the  clay  and  discharge  altogether  2 or  3 second-feet,  the  water  being 
used  to  irrigate  a small  farm  by  storing  that  which  flows  during  the 
night  to  aid  the  supply  by  day.  There  is  a large  extent  of  valley  land 
in  this  neighborhood  at  present  uncultivated  on  account  of  the  uncer- 
tain supply  of  water  in  the  Gfallinas  River,  which  is  frequently  dry  in 
the  growing  season. 

From  Gallinas  Springs  nearly  to  Las  Colonias  the  river  flows  through 
a canyon  with  some  irrigable  land  on  either  side.  Above  Las  Colonias 
the  canyon  broadens  until  the  walls,  which  are  200  to  300  feet  high,  are 
fully  2 miles  apart.  From  the  base  of  these  cliffs  on  either  side  to  the 
river  the  land  is  capable  of  irrigation,  although  the  Mexicans  have 
reclaimed  only  the  narrow  strip  bordering  the  river.  By  the  end  of 
August  the  water  fails  in  the  river  at  this  point,  and  there  is  little  if 
any  in  it  again  until  about  April.  On  the  east  side  some  of  the  rich 
bottom  lands  are  capable  of  raising  a poor  crop  of  corn  without  irri- 
gation, owing,  no  doubt,  to  seepage  from  the  river. 

Below  Las  Colonias  the  canyon  walls  come  closer  together,  and  there 
is  no  irrigable  laud  for  15  miles,  or  until  Agua  Negra  Springs  are 
reached.  Here  the  valley  broadens  out  again  to  a width  varying  from 
one-half  mile  to  2 miles  or  more.  From  this  point  southward  the  valley 
contracts  and  broadens  out  again  at  varying  distances  until  the  canyon 
country  is  left  behind  a few  miles  above  Fort  Sumner. 


288 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


On  the  Pecos  and  Gallinas  rivers  north  of  Puerto  de  Luna  about  one- 
half  of  the  easily  irrigable  valley  land  is  under  cultivation,  but  in  all 
this  region  nothing  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  permanent  improve- 
ment ; no  trees  are  planted,  few  vines,  and  very  little  alfalfa.  Either 
the  Mexicans  are  not  thrifty,  or  else  they  are  afraid  to  run  the  risk  of 
losing  trees  and  vines  by  drought  and  bursting  of  dams. 

IRRIGATION  WORKS  ON  THE  PECOS. 

The  town  of  Puerto  de  Luna,  a Mexican  town,  is  divided  into  two 
parts  by  the  Pecos.  The  western  town  has  a very  good  acequia  taking 
most  of  the  water  of  the  Agua  Negra,  and  thus  possesses  a constant 
supply.  All  the  water  is  utilized  on  small  Mexican  farms,  each  a few 
acres  in  extent.  On  the  east  side  of  the  river  many  unsuccessful 
attempts  have  been  made  to  take  water  out  of  the  Pecos  after  the  usual 
Mexican  method,  and  even  the  Mexicans  are  convinced  that  the  Pecos 
is  entirely  too  changeable  and  violent  a river  for  brush  dams.  A ditch 
4 miles  in  length  has  been  constructed,  and  four  times  the  dam  has 
been  swept  away,  leaving  the  irrigators  without  water  in  the  midst  of 
the  season.  The  last  dam  was  built  in  the  autumn  of  1887,  at  which 
time  a road  was  built  to  the  mesa  top  for  brush,  aud  several  thousand 
dollars  in  labor  were  expended  in  constructing  the  dam,  which  was 
swept  away  in  the  spring.  The  inhabitants  are  reduced  to  extreme 
poverty  and  are  in  despair.  In  1888  and  1889  they  were  entirely  with 
out  water,  and,  as  it  did  not  rain  during  the  summer,  those  who  tried 
to  raise  crops  without  irrigation  made  complete  failure.  The  only  man 
who  had  fruit  trees  was  forced  to  irrigate  them  by  carrying  water  in 
pails. 

Between  Puerto  de  Lima  and  Roswell  little  land  is  irrigated.  Puerto 
de  Luna  is  practically  the  limit  of  Mexican  advance,  though  below 
there  an  occasional  Mexican  farm  is  found,  irrigated  either  by  a small 
private  acequia  or  by  spring  water.  At  Roswell  more  land  is  cultivated, 
but  the  proportion  of  irrigated  to  irrigable  land  not  irrigated  is  very 
small.  Between  Roswell  and  the  Texas  line,  including  the  country 
about  Roswell,  there  were  in  1889  not  more  than  3,000  or  3,500  acres  of 
land  under  cultivation  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  In  this  tract  of  country 
there  are  300,000  acres  of  land  that  can  easily  be  reclaimed.  Within  a 
radius  of  from  2 to  3 miles  from  Roswell  there  were  in  1889  less  than 
2,000  acres  of  cultivated  land,  including  about  300  acres  of  alfalfa,  40 
acres  of  fruit  trees  and  vines,  and  50  acres  of  timber  planted  under  the 
timber-culture  act. 

The  amount  of  cultivated  land  is  increasing  rapidly  each  year,  and 
especially  in  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  great  activity  in  ditch 
construction.  The  following  statements  of  the  carrying  capacity  of  the 
various  acequias  about  Roswell  in  1889  were  furnished  by  the  con- 
structing engineer,  the  estimates  being  based  upon  the  number  of  acres 
that  each  ditch  could  flood  to  a depth  of  18  inches  during  the  irrigat- 


IRRIGATION  DITCHES  AT  KOSWELL. 


NEWELL.] 


289 


ing  season,  taking  into  account  the  watgr  supply,  character  of  the  land, 
and  size  and  slope  of  the  ditch : 


From  Berenda  River: 

Boon  Ditch 

Milne  Ditch 

Crow  Ditch 

From  North  Spring  River : 

Ballard  Ditch 

Pioneer  Ditch 

Stone  Ditch 

Roswell  Ditch 

From  Hondo  River,  Fountain  Ditch 
From  South  Spring  River : 

East  Sea  Ditch 

Corn  Ditch 

Mills  Ditch 

Poe  Ditch 

Roberts  Ditch 

South  Sea  Ditch 


Acres. 

40 

100 

150 

300 
700 
1,  500 
0) 
20 

150 

200 

300 

300 

1,500 

2,000 


When  all  these  ditches  were  running  to  their  full  capacity  about  one- 
half  the  water  was  taken  out  of  the  Berenda,  while  tlie  amount  taken 


Fig.  225. — An  acequia  at  Boswell,  New  Mexico. 

from  the  North  Spring  River  did  not  appear  to  be  materially  decreased, 
and  in  the  South  Spring  River  very  little  water  was  left.  The  Berenda 
at  its  headwaters  is  a small  stream,  and  possibly  the  carrying  capacity 
of  the  first  three  ditches  has  been  underestimated. 

A vieiv  of  one  of  these  small  ditches  is  given  on  Fig.  225,  showing 
the  general  character  of  these  acequias  and  the  regulating  gate  at  the 
head.  These  regulating  gates,  as  previously  stated,  are  of  wood, 
roughly  made,  all  such  works  being  constructed  by  the  irrigators.  On 


12  geol.,  px.  2 19 


Supplies  the  town. 


290 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


the  left-hand  .side  of  the  picture  are  stacks  of  alfalfa,  which  has  been 
raised  by  means  of  the  water  of  the  ditch.  There  is  nothing  unusual 
in  the  general  appearance  of  this  ditch,  and  the  picture  is  introduced 
merely  to  show  the  general  character  of  the  country,  since  it  might 
have  been  taken  almost  anywhere  in  the  Rio  Grande  Basin. 

Since  1889  several  large  irrigating  systems  have  been  laid  out  and  in 
part  completed  along  the  Lower  Pecos  in  New  Mexico,  and  even 
extending  into  Texas.  The  most  notable  is  that  in  the  vicinity  and 
south  of  the  town  of  Eddy,  where  a masonry  dam  located  a few  miles 
above  the  town  serves  both  to  divert  the  water  into  the  canals  and  to 
a certain  extent  to  impound  the  floods.  These  canal  systems  have 
been  described  in  great  detail  in  various  publications,1  rendering  it 
unnecessary  at  this  time  to  enter  into  a description  of  them.  The 
storage  of  surplus  water  is  a matter  of  great  concern  to  all  these  canal 
companies  and  irrigators,  and  a number  of  favorable  reservoir  sites 
have  been  surveyed  and  plans  have  been  drawn  tip  for  extensive  works 
of  this  character. 

DRAINAGE  BASIN  OF  THE  COLORADO  RIVER. 

This  great  river,  draining  an  area  of  225,049  square  miles  and  deliv- 
ering a great  volume  of  water  into  the  Gulf  of  California,  has  within 
its  catchment  basin  the  most  diversified  and  wonderful  topography  on 
the  continent.  The  Grand  and  Green  Rivers,  rising  in  Colorado, 
Wyoming,  and  Utah,  receive  their  waters  from  the  western  side  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  from  the  Wasatch  and  Uinta  ranges.  Uniting 
their  floods  to  form  the  Colorado,  they  flow  through  the  most  stupen- 
dous canyons  of  the  world,  from  3,000  to  0,000  feet  in  depth  below  the 
tops  of  the  plateaus,  into  which  the  tributary  streams  also  have  cut 
gigantic  gorges. 

After  leaving  the  canyons  the  stream  meanders  through  the  broken 
lands  and  deserts  south  of  the  Great  Basin,  and  shortly  before  reach- 
ing the  Gulf  of  California  receives  at  Yuma  the  waters  of  the  Gila 
River,  which  drains  southern  Arizona  and  a part  of  New  Mexico,  and 
whose  basin  is  described  in  detail  farther  on. 

On  PI.  lxxiv  are  given  the  fluctuations  of  the  river  at  Yuma  for 
each  year  since  1880.  The  dotted  line  indicates  the  average  height  ot 
the  river  during  the  entire  period  through  which  measurements  have 
been  made,  and  the  irregular  line  indicates  the  stage  of  water  during 
the  particular  year  whose  date  is  affixed  to  the  left  side  of  the  dia- 
grams. An  examination  of  these  diagrams  shows  that  in  the  year  1880 
the  height  of  the  river  was  in  general  below  the  average,  rising  above 
this  only  for  short  periods  and  quickly  falling.  In  1881  and  1882  the 

1 Notably  by  H.  M.  Wilson,  in  tlie  Engineering  News,  New  York,  October  17,  1891,  ami  also  in 
pamphlets  issued  by  the  Pecos  Irrigation  and  Improvement  Company,  Eddy,  New  Mexico. 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  Of  ILLINOIS 


U.  S.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

Jan.  Feb.  Mar.  Apr.  May.  June.  July.  Aut.  Sept.  Oct.  Nov.  Dec. 


GAUGE  HEIGHT  OF  THE  COLORADO 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  LXXIV 

Jan.  Feb.  Mar.  Apr.  May.  June  July.  Aug.  Sept.  Oct.  Nov.  Dec. 


CP  AT  YUMA,  ARIZONA,  1880  TO  1891. 


NEWELL.] 


DISCHARGE  OF  COLORADO  RIVER. 


291 


height  followed  the  normal  very  closely,  and  iu  1883  was  for  a great 
part  of  the  year  a trifle  above. 

In  1884  floods  of  unusual  extent  occurred;  in  March  the  water  was 
higher  than  it  had  beeu  for  many  years,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  May, 
during  June,  and  the  first  half  of  July  the  floods  were  unprecedented 
both  in  amount  and  duration.  Throughout  the  western  part  of  the  con- 
tinent this  year  was  notable  for  the  excessive  rainfall  and  height  of  the 
rivers,  and  even  in  the  subhumid  regions  the  rainfall  was  so  great  that 
settlement  was  encouraged  in  localities  where  no  crops  have  been  ma- 
tured since  that  year.  By  referring  to  the  diagram  of  annual  rainfall 
in  the  Rio  Grande  Basin,  Fig.  223,  and  of  that  of  the  annual  rainfall  in 
the  Gila  Basin,  Fig.  226,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  nearly  all  the  localities 
whose  rainfall  is  plotted  the  depth  of  precipitation  in  1884  exceeds  that 
of  the  years  immediately  preceding  or  succeeding. 

In  1885  the  river  was  in  general  below  the  normal  height,  and  in  1886 
was  at  nearly  the  same  stage,  the  June  flood  being  larger  than  in  the 
preceding  year.  In  1887, 1888,  and  1889  the  river  remained  at  or  below 
the  normal,  the  June  flood  of  the  latter  year  being  so  small  in  compari- 
son with  that  of  March  as  barely  to  show  an  increase.  In  1890  the 
water  remained  above  the  normal  for  the  whole  year,  but  the  June  flood, 
which  promised  to  be  so  large,  dropped  off  abruptly  in  the  middle  of 
the  mouth. 

The  spring  of  1891  was  characterized  by  the  greatest  flood  of  which 
a record  has  be6n  kept.  This  came,  as  have  most  of  those  of  February 
and  March,  from  the  Gila  Basiu,  where  a large  amount  of  damage  was 
done  by  the  extraordinary  rains.  This  sudden  flood  is  interesting  from 
the  fact  that  it  was  probably  the  cause  of  the  submergence  of  a portion 
of  the  Colorado  Desert  in  the  central  part  of  San  Diego  County,  Cali- 
fornia. The  lowest  part  of  this  desert,  at  a point  about  60  miles  west 
of  the  Colorado  River,  is  225  feet  or  more  below  sea  level.  The  South- 
ern Pacific  Railroad  runs  through  this  depression,  and  the  unexpected 
appearance  of  the  water  at  this  remote  point  occasioned  some  alarm  and 
also  damage  to  the  salt  works  on  the  lowest  ground. 

Discharge  measurements  of  the  Colorado  River  were  made  by  the 
Wheeler  Survey  in  1875  and  1876  at  three  points — Stone’s  Ferry  iu  Ne- 
vada, below  the  mouth  of  the  Virgin,  at  Camp  Mohave,  Arizona,  and 
at  Fort  Yuma,  California,  the  results  of  which  are  given  in  a memoran- 
dum by  Lieut.  Bergland.1 

At  Stone’s  Ferry  the  measurements  on  August  12,  1875,  gave  the 
area  of  section  as  5,723  square  feet,  width  480  feet,  mean  velocity  3*217 
feet  per  second,  and  discharge  18,410  second-feet.  The  high-water 
mark  of  1871  Avas  17*01  feet  above  surface  of  water  at  the  time  of  obser- 
vations. Increase  of  area  at  high  water  Avas  9,773  square  feet.  The 


1 Annual  report  upon  the  geographical  surveys  west  of  the  100th  meridian  iu  California,  Nevada, 
Utah,  Colorado,  AVyoming,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  Montana,  by  George  M.  AVlieelor,  first  lieuten- 
ant of  engineers,  U S.  A.,  being  Appendix  JJ  of  the  annual  reportof  the  Chief  of  Engineers  for  1876,  pp. 
71-72, 119-125,  AVashington,  1876. 


292 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


whole  discharge  at  that  time  takes  place  through  the  section.  Assum- 
ing the  mean  velocity  to  remain  the  same  as  on  August  12, 1875,  the  in- 
crease in  discharge  would  be  31,440  second-feet;  but  as  in  reality  there 
would  also  be  an  increase  in  the  velocity,  the  increase  in  discharge 
would  be  somewhat  greater  than  this. 

At  Camp  Mohave  on  September  2,  1875,  the  area  of  section  was  4,628 
square  feet,  width  1,110  feet,  mean  velocity  2-508  feet  per  second,  and 
discharge  11,011  second-feet.  The  high-water  mark  of  1874  was  8 feet 
above  surface  of  river  on  that  date.  The  increase  of  area  of  section  at 
high  water,  excluding  overflow  on  flats,  would  be  13,656  square  feet, 
and  the  increase  in  discharge  through  the  section  would  be  34,274  sec- 
ond-feet, but  as  a considerable  quantity  of  the  bottom  beyond  the  sec- 
tion is  then  covered  with  water,  this  will  not  represent  the  total  increase. 

At  Fort  Yuma  on  March  20,  1876,  the  area  was  2,726  square  feet, 
width  461  feet,  mean  velocity  2-809  feet  per  second,  and  discharge  7,659 
second-feet.  The  high-water  mark  of  1862  was  10-19  feet  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  river.  The  increase  of  area  of  section  at  high  water  would 
be  5,059  square  feet.  The  increase  in  discharges  through  section  would 
be  14,244  second-feet.  Here  the  velocity  throughout  the  section  would 
be  increased  at  time  of  high  water,  and  a large  quantity  would  flow 
outside  of  the  section,  since  the  bottom  lands  would  be  flooded. 

Adding  the  iucrease  of  discharge,  due  to  the  increase  of  area,  to  that 
measured,  the  flood  discharges  at  the  three  places  would  be  at  least 
49,850,  45,885,  and  21,903  second-feet,  respectively,  to  which  is  to  be 
added  the  amount  passing  outside  the  sections,  which  in  the  case  of 
Fort  Yuma  is  large.  It  is  stated  that  the  computed  increase  for  Camp 
Mohave  is  probably  nearer  the  truth  than  that  for  the  other  localities. 

THE  GILA  BASIN. 

TOPOGliAPIIY  AND  ALTITUDES. 

The  Gila  Basin  (PI.  lxxv),  the  most  southerly  portion  of  the  great 
Colorado  drainage  basin,  includes  the  greater  part  of  Arizona,  as  well 
as  a portion  of  New  Mexico  and  of  Sonora,  in  the  Republic  of  Mexico. 
In  all  this  area  of  66,020  square  miles  the  success  of  agriculture  depends 
upon  the  artificial  application  of  water  to  the  crops.  This  water  is  de- 
rived from  the  Gila  River  and  its  tributaries  by  means  of  canals  and 
ditches,  which  distribute  it  to  the  fields  of  each  farmer.  These  streams 
fluctuate  greatly,  being  at  times  subject  to  sudden  floods,  especially 
during  summer  rains,  when  they  often  sweep  out  bridges,  dams,  and 
canal  head  works,  while  at  other  times  they  may  diminish  until  the 
water  almost  disappears.  In  floods  there  is,  of  course,  far  more  water 
than  can  be  used,  although  at  this  season  as  much  as  possible  is  put 
upon  the  crops,  especially  the  forage  plants,  and  great  quantities  are 
turned  upon  the  fields  in  order  to  saturate  the  ground;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  during  the  ordinary  low  stages  of  the  streams,  the  acreage 
of  crops  is  limited  to  that  which  can  be  watered  by  the  diminished  flow. 


j 


[^trrrpn 


S (IKOI.OC.K-Al,  SURVEY TWELFTH  ANNUAL,  REPORT. FART  II  PI, 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.] 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  GILA  RASIN. 


293 


On  PI.  lxxv  is  given  a map  of  the  basin  on  a scale  of  40  miles  to  the 
inch,  with  contour  interval  of  1,000  feet.  This  is  taken  from  the  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey  map  of  1891  and  shows  in  a general  way,  as  is 
necessary  on  this  scale,  the  elevations  in  this  basin.  It  has  been  de- 
rived from  all  material  accessible  and  gives  at  a glance  the  present 
condition  of  our  knowledge  of  this  important  region. 

By  glancing  at  this  map  it  will  be  seen  that  the  high  land  of  the 
basin,  as  indicated  by  the  darker  color,  is  along  the  northeastern  edge. 
By  consulting  the  full  map  from  which  this  is  taken  it  would  be  seen 
that  this  rim  of  the  basin  is  not  composed  of  high  mountain  ranges,  as 
might  appear  from  the  small  map  alone,  but  is  really  the  edge  of  a 
great  plateau.  Against  the  edge  of  this  great  plateau  the  prevailing 
winds  from  the  south  or  southwest  strike,  and,  being  forced  upward,  as 
they  rise  deposit  their  moisture  in  the  form  of  rain  or  snow,  which, 
rolling  backward,  forms  the  small  streams  that,  uniting,  feed  the 
Gila. 

The  map  shows  these  little  streams  flowing  in  a general  southwesterly 
direction  and  in  the  northern  part  of  the  basin  uniting  to  form  the 
Verde,  which  flows  southerly  parallel  to  the  face  of  the  cliffs.  A- little 
farther  to  the  south  and  east  these  streams  unite  in  the  Salt,  which  also 
flows  very  nearly  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  drainage  basin,  but  to  the 
west  to  meet  the  Verde.  On  the  extreme  eastern  edge  of  the  basin  the 
plateau-like  character  gives  place  to  mountain  ranges,  and  a less  regular 
arrangement  of  the  small  tributaries  is  found  there.  They  flow  in 
almost  every  direction,  to  unite  finally  in  the  Gila,  which  takes  a course 
nearly  parallel  to  that  of  the  Salt. 

The  remainder  of  the  rim  of  the  basin  is  poorly  defined.  The  eleva- 
tions are  lower,  and  consequently  the  precipitation  is  less,  and,  with 
little  rainfall,  the  streams  are  small,  and  seldom  extend  sufficiently  far 
from  the  mountains  to  unite  into  a perennial  river.  Most  of  them  sink 
into  the  broad,  sandy  plains  soon  after  leaving  their  canyons;  and 
while  from  the  considerations  of  the  topography  they  may  be  consid- 
ered as  belonging  in  the  drainage  basin  of  the  Gila,  yet  they  seldom  or 
never  contribute  to  its  waters. 

Thus  the  drainage  basin  of  the  Gila  may  be  considered  as  consisting 
of  two  great  divisions — that  on  the  northeast,  shown  on  the  map  by  the 
heavy  tints,  rugged  and  precipitous,  catching  the  moisture  from  the 
clouds;  and  that  to  the  southwest  consisting  principally  of  vast  areas 
of  nearly  level  land,  shown  in  lighter  tint,  much  of  it  exceedingly  fertile, 
and  in  every  way  adapted  to  agriculture,  excepting  in  the  one  particular, 
the  lack  of  water.  Were  it  not  for  the  position  of  these  high  plateaus, 
all  of  this  fertile  land  would  remain  forever  valueless  to  the  farmer, 
and  thus  it  is  that  the  mountain  region,  even  if  it  were  of  no  other 
use,  would  still  be  valuable  as  a collector  of  rainfall.  This  great  area, 
however,  is  not  wholly  useless,  for  much  of  it  is  valuable  mineral 
land,  the  mines  from  which  have  brought  prosperity  to  parts  of  the 
basiu. 


294 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


Assuming  that  this  map  of  the  drainage  basin  is  approximately  cor- 
rect, sufficiently  so  for  general  purposes,  computations  have  been  made 
of  the  area  of  land  lying  at  different  elevations,  the  results  being  as 
follows : The  total  area  of  the  basin  is  60,020  square  miles.  Of  this 
area — 

9 per  cent  is  under  1,000  feet. 

19  per  cent  is  between  1,000  and  2,000  feet. 

16  per  cent  is  between  2,000  and  3,000  feet. 

14  per  cent  is  between  3,000  and  4,000  feet. 

15  per  cent  is  between  4,000  and  5,000  feet. 

12  per  cent  is  between  5,000  and  6,000  feet. 

8 per  cent  is  between  6,000  and  7,000  feet. 

7 per  cent  is  over  7,000  feet. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  land  lying  at  an  elevation  of  less  than  3,000 
feet,  may  be  classed  as  sandy  plains,  in  large  part  agricultural  if  water 
could  be  supplied ; in  other  words,  about  44  per  cent  of  the  entire  area 
of  the  basin  would  fall  into  this  class.  The  lands  over  5,000  feet  in  ele- 
vation may  be  considered  as  mountainous  catchment  areas.  These  ag- 
gregate 27  per  cent  of  the  entire  basin,  and  it  is  from  this  27  per  cent, 
or  a portion  thereof  at  least,  that  all  of  the  water  comes. 

The  greater  part,  if  not  all,  of  the  grazing  and  mining  regions  are 
included  within  this  27  per  cent,  as  well  as  all  the  timber.  The  land 
from  3,000  to  5,000  feet  above  the  sea  is  partly  plain  and  partly  foothill. 
A small  part  is  agricultural,  especially  at  the  headwaters  of  the  Verde 
and  those  of  the  Upper  Gila,  but  in  the  main  it  is  broken  country,  of 
little  value  even  for  grazing. 

In  this  connection  it  is  important  to  note  the  political  divisions  which 
have  been  made  in  the  drainage  basin,  for  much  of  their  prosperity 
depends  upon  the  wisdom  and  foresight  with  which  the  boundaries  of 
States  and  counties  have  been  laid  out.  This  is  particularly  the  case  in 
the  arid  regions,  where  the  one  thing  of  value  is  the  water,  and  where 
the  land  takes  its  value  only  from  its  position  as  regards  the  water 
supply.  If  the  boundaries  of  States  and  counties  had  been  made  to 
coincide  with  natural  divisions,  so  that  the  streams  with  their  head- 
waters would  lie  in  one  grand  division,  the  future  control  and  manage- 
ment of  the  water  would  be  comparatively  simple;  but  in  the  cases 
(which  are  unfortunately  too  common)  where,  for  example,  the  head- 
waters of  a stream  are  in  one  State  and  the  irrigable  land  in  another, 
there  is  constant  strife,  or  even  an  abandonment  of  great  natural  re- 
sources. 

The  Gila  basin  includes,  besides  the  greater  part  of  southern  Ari- 
zona, a small  portion  of  the  Territory  of  New  Mexico,  and  the  State  of 
Sonora,  in  the  Republic  of  Mexico.  In  the  case  of  this  latter  country 
the  rim  of  the  basin  has  been  arbitrarily  assumed,  as  there  are  no 
available  maps  which  define  it,  and  on  the  southwestern  edge  the 
boundary  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico  is  taken  as  the  limit 
of  the  basin.  This  area,  by  counties,  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


NEWELL.  ] 


AREA  OF  GILA  BASIN. 


295 


Square  miles. 

Socorro  County,  New  Mexico 3,  893 

Sierra  County,  New  Mexico 156 

Grant  County,  New  Mexico 2,  818  6,  867 


Republic  of  Mexico 

Apaclie  County,  Arizona  . . 
Graham  County,  Arizona  . 
Cochise  County,  Arizona.. 

Gila  County,  Arizona 

Pinal  County,  Arizona 

Pima  County,  Arizona 

Yavapai  County,  Arizona  . 
Maricopa  County,  Arizona 
Yuma  County,  Arizona 


1, 168 

2,  550 
6, 152 
6,  004 

3,  212 
5,300 

10,  596 
9, 685 
9,  815 

4,  671  57, 985 


Total  66,020 

Nearly  88  per  cent  of  the  entire  area  is  in  Arizona,  a little  over  10 
per  cent  in  New  Mexico,  and  nearly  2 per  cent  in  Mexico. 

By  a glance  at  the  map,  PI.  lxxv,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Gila  River 
proper  rises  in  southwestern  New  Mexico,  near  the  Arizona  line,  and 
Hows  southwesterly  through  Arizona  to  its  confluence  with  the  Colo- 
rado River.  Its  total  length  from  the  source  in  New  Mexico  to  the  junc- 
tion with  the  Colorado  River,  not  including  its  many  windings,  is  fully 
500  miles.  Besides  the  main  Gila,  the  principal  tributaries  and  streams 
of  the  basin  are  the  San  Pedro  and  Santa  Cruz  rivers  on  the  south,  and 
the  Salt,  Verde,  Agua  Fria,  and  Hassayampa  rivers  on  the  north. 

The  hoods  of  the  Gila  are  usually  short  and  violent,  the  highest  water 
occurring  during  the  months  of  January  and  February.  During  a freshet 
the  river  rises  in  some  places  from  8 to  12  feet,  and  increases  in  width 
from  300  feet  to  a mile  and  a half.  It  is  sometimes  impassable  for  weeks, 
and  has  the  appearance  in  places  of  a sea  of  muddy  water.  The  season 
of  low  water  occurs  during  the  months  of  June  and  July,  the  riverbed 
being  then  dry  in  places. 

AGRICULTURAL  LANDS. 

The  aggregate  area  in  this  basin  on  which  crops  were  raised  by  irri- 
gation in  the  year  ending  June  30,  1890,  was  found  by  the  Census  Office 
to  be  01,857  acres,  or  90-05  square  miles,  this  land  being  along  the  main 
river  and  its  tributaries,  principally  near  the  foothills,  or  among  them 
wherever  the  valleys  opened  out,  leaving  room  for  Hood  plains.  This  is 
between  one  and  two  tenths  of  1 per  cent  of  the  entire  area  of  the  basin, 
or,  as  the  land  is  principally  under  3,000  feet  in  elevation,  is  about  three- 
tenths  of  1 per  cent  of  this  latter  class.  But  in  addition  to  the  lands  on 
which  crops  were  raised  there  is  estimated  to  bean  acreage  fully  twice 
as  large  under  irrigation,  that  is,  to  which  water  has  been  brought  and 
perhaps  applied  in  certain  years  or  seasons,  but  upon  which  crops  were 
not  matured  in  the  census  year,  owing  either  to  scarcity  of  water  or  the 
undeveloped  state  of  the  country. 


296 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


It  is  evident  from  previous  statements  that  this  acreage  under  irriga- 
tion is  but  a small  percentage  of  the  total  amount  which,  with  ample 
water,  might  be  cultivated;  in  fact,  this  latter  total  is  so  large,  so  much 
beyond  the  possibilities  of  water  supply,  that  estimates  as  to  its  extent 
have  little  or  no  practical  value.  It  is  sufficient  to  know  that  there  are 
in  the  Gila  basin  at  least  10,000,000  acres  of  fertile  soil,  the  greater 
part  of  which  is  without  water.  In  other  words,  the  soil  and  climate 
are  favorable  to  an  expansion  of  agriculture,  which  is  limited  only  by 
the  water  supply. 

Not  only  does  the  basin  possess  .all  the  elements  of  sucessful  agricul- 
ture, but  it  has  the  advantage  of  local  markets  and  a constantly  increas- 
ing demand  for  the  products.  The  mining  regions  call  for  all  kinds  of 
food  stuffs  and  forage,  and,  in  fact,  many  grades  of  ore  depend  for  suc- 
cessful handling  upon  a small  reduction  in  cost  of  living,  and  conse- 
quently, of  wages  of  the  miners.  There  is  thus  a close  interdependence 
between  agriculture  and  mining,  the  prosperity  of  the  one  reacting  upon 
the  other;  large  crops  increase  the  possibility  of  working  the  minerals, 
and  the  more  laborers  there  are  at  the  mines  the  greater  is  the  demand 
for  all  kinds  of  produce.. 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  relation  which  now  ex- 
ists between  the  area  of  the  catchment  and  the  area  upon  which  crops 
have  been  successfully  raised,  that  is,  for  which  there  has  been  an 
ample  water  supply.  It  is  impossible  to  obtain,  without  better  maps, 
the  exact  area  of  catchment,  but  assuming  for  purposes  of  comparison 
that  it  lies  above  5,000  feet  in  elevation,  it  is  found  that  for  every  acre 
irrigated  there  are  in  round  numbers  about  180  acres  of  catchment  area, 
or  for  every  1,000  square  miles  of  catchment  crops  have  been  raised  on 
a little  over  5 square  miles.  This  obviously  is  a very  small  ratio,  and 
progress  will  constantly  tend  to  increase  it  rapidly  at  first,  and  then 
more  and  more  slowly. 


DUTY  OK  WATEK. 

This  relation  between  the  area  of  catchment  and  area  cultivated  de- 
pends directly  upon  the  average  duty  of  water,  which,  taking  the  basin 
as  a whole,  is  very  small,  although  there  are  instances  to  show  that  it 
can  be  greatly  increased.  Calculations  have  been  made  that  with 
ordinary  care  and  economy  a second-foot  should  serve  120  acres.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  it  will  take  some  years  of  experience  before  a 
majority  of  the  farmers  can  successfully  accomplish  this,  and  more  or 
less  hardship  may  arise  in  attempting  to  carry  out  such  economy. 
Complaints  are  now  made  by  the  farmers  that  the  larger  canal  com- 
panies do  not  furnish  them  sufficient  water,  while  the  canal  superin- 
tendents assert  that  far  more  than  a sufficient  amount  is  allowed. 

An  approximation  of  the  duty  of  water  in  the  Gila  Valley  can  be 
made  by  knowing  the  amount  which  enters  through  the  canyons  as  com- 
pared with  the  crops  irrigated.  Eliminating  the  floods,  it  lias  been 


NEWELL.] 


WATER  DITTY  IN  THE  GILA  BASIN. 


297 


found,  for  example,  by  the  hydrograpliers  of  the  Geological  Survey 
that  about  200  second-feet  passed  through  the  buttes  above  Florence 
during  the  year  in  which,  as  ascertained  by  the  census,  there  were 
about  6,600  acres  of  crops  successfully  irrigated.  This  would  give  a 
water  duty,  measuring  the  water  in  the  river,  of  only  33  acres,  but  it 
should  be  noted  that  a great  quantity  of  this  water  was  wasted,  and 
was  used  on  lands  on  which  crops  were  not  matured.  On  the  lower 
Salt  the  measurement  of  the  average  How,  deducting  the  Hoods,  for 
this  time  was  about  600  second-feet,  and  about  30,000  acres  of  crops 
were  raised,  giving  a water  duty  of  50  acres.  This  water  duty  is  also 
very  low,  from  reasons  similar  to  those  given  above,  but  is  higher  from 
the  fact  that  the  canals  were  distributed  /dong  a greater  distance,  and 
much  seepage  water  returned  to  the  river  to  be  used  a second  time. 

Some  conception  of  the  average  How  of  the  streams  of  the  basin  may 
be  obtained  by  knowing  the  acreage  of  crops  successfully  irrigated, 
assuming  as  correct  the  statements  of  the  irrigators  that  these  crops 
demanded  all  the  water  available  in  the  streams  during  the  time  in 
which  they  were  maturing.  Since  there  were  in  the  basin  61,857  acres 
irrigated  successfully,  it  follows  that  with  a water  duty  of  50  acres  to 
the  second-foot  the  available  water  supply  was  at  least  1,237  secoml- 
feet,  or  with  a water  duty  of  30  acres  to  the  second-foot,  was  2,062 
second-feet. 

After  the  water  duty  has  been  increased  to  the  greatest  possible 
amount  and  the  limit  in  this  direction  has  been  reached,  there  must  be 
vast  areas  suffering  for  water.  Under  present  methods,  as  much  water 
as  possible  is  turned  out  upon  the  ground  in  time  of  Hood  in  order  to 
produce  complete  saturation  and  great  quantities  are  used  upon  the 
alfalfa  and  other  forage  crops.  Then,  as  the  rivers  fall,  water  is  em- 
ployed to  mature  the  cereals  and  vegetables,  and  finally  during  a 
drought  the  available  supply  is  concentrated  upon  perennial  plants, 
letting  others  perish  in  order  to  save  vines,  fruit  and  shade  trees. 

There  thus  arises  in  this  method  of  progress  without  water  storage  a 
condition  of  affairs  in  which  the  acreage  under  cultivation  adjusts 
itself  to  the  average  perennial  supply.  In  other  words,  the  amount  of 
land  on  which  crops  can  be  raised  will  be  that  which  the  river  in  an  ordi- 
nary year  will  supply  with  water.  If  less  comes  than  usual,  a portion 
of  these  crops  must  burn  under  the  heat  of  the  sun;  if  more  than  usual 
Hows,  a larger  acreage  will  mature,  and  more  cuttings  of  the  hay  crop 
can  be  made.  It  may  be  said  for  the  Gila  Basin,  as  well  as  for  the 
greater  portion  of  the  arid  region,  that  this  condition  has  nearly  taken 
place.  The  acreage  of  crops  planted  each  year  demands  all  the  water 
or  even  more  than  flows  during  the  times  when  they  are  maturing  and 
the  need  is  greatest. 

While  therefore  the  extent  to  which  irrigation  can  increase  without 
water  storage  can  not  be  satisfactorily  estimated,  it  is  apparent  that 
this  can  not  be  very  great.  Every  irrigator  looks  forward  to  the  per- 


298 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


lection  of  water  storage  as  the  only  method  of  relief  from  present  un- 
certainties and  losses. 

WATER  STORAGE. 

In  this  basin  a number  of  excellent  sites  are  known  to  exist;  two  in 
particular  have  been  so  often  discussed  that  it  is  sufficient  merely  to 
refer  to  them.  The  first  is  in  Pinal  County,  15  miles  above  Flor- 
ence, where  the  Gila  flows  between  two  “buttes,”  forming  a canyon 
200  feet  or  more  in  width,  with  perpendicular  walls  on  each  side.  In 
this  canyon  a dam  of  sufficient  magnitude  would  impound,  from  various 
estimates,  enough  water  to  irrigate  a large  part  of  the  plains  below. 
The  second  is  at  Oatman  Flats,  in  the  western  part  of  Maricopa  County. 
The  Gila  at  this  point  flows  between  bluffs  of  limestone  from  111  to 
126  feet  high,  and  at  a distance  of  1,195  feet  from  each  other.  There  is 
a large  storage  basin  above,  in  which,  by  means  of  a suitable  dam, 
sufficient  water  could  be  stored  during  the  storm  floods  to  serve  the 
Lower  Gila  Valley  during  the  dry  season. 

Besides  these  there  are  numerous  places  where  dams  could  be  con- 
structed and  smaller  bodies  of  water  stored.  It  is  reported  that  Salt 
River,  a short  distance  below  the  mouth  of  Tonto  Creek,  passes  through 
a box  canyon  with  vertical  sides  rising  to  the  height  of  100  feet.  A 
suitable  dam  built  here  would  impound  sufficient  water  to  furnish  a part 
of  the  Salt  River  Valley  with  an  abundant  supply. 

But  while  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  there  being  suitable  localities  in 
which  water  can  be  held,  there  is  some  question  as  to  the  quantities  of 
water  to  be  depended  upon  to  fill  these  reservoirs  annually.  Each  year 
there  are  short,  sudden  floods  carrying  considerable  volume  of  water 
for  a few  hours,  and  at  longer  intervals,  perhaps  of  three  or  five  years, 
there  are  enormous  floods,  whose  violence  and  duration  is  phenomenal. 
These  latter,  however,  are  rather  to  be  feared  than  to  be  depended  upon 
as  beneficial. 

The  question  arises,  will  the  ordinary  floods,  such  as  happen  every 
year  without  exception,  fill  these  storage  reservoirs?  Can  they  be 
depended  upon,  and  do  they  always  carry  the  requisite  amount  of 
water?  This  is  a question,  unfortunately,  which  is  far  from  being 
answered,  and  the  operation  of  the  Geological  Survey  being  carried  on 
for  such  a short  time,  tends  rather  to  increase  the  doubt  than  to  satisfy  it. 
The  year  during  which  the  measurements  were  made  was  one  of  com- 
parative scarcity,  and  these  measurements,  as  shown  on  later  pages, 
do  not  give  the  great  quantities  of  water  available  for  storage  that  is 
popularly  supposed  to  exist. 

As  before  intimated,  it  is  necessary  to  carry  on  measurements  of  this 
class  for  several  years  before  engineering  estimates  can  safely  be  pre- 
pared. Thus  the  first  steps  toward  water  storage  in  this  basin  on  any 
large  scale,  one  in  which  a majority  of  the  inhabitants  will  be  con- 
cerned, is  to  continue  such  measurements  for  a sufficient  number  of 
years  to  determine  the  necessary  facts. 


NEWELL  ] 


PRECIPITATION  IN  THE  GILA  BASIN. 


299 


A study  of  rainfall  is  interesting  and  may  yield  instructive  results. 
If  the  river  flow  varied  directly  with  the  rainfall,  the  matter  would  be 
greatly  simplified,  but,  unfortunately,  the  relation  which  exists  between 
the  precipitation  as  measured  in  the  rain  gauges  and  the  amount  of 
water  available  is  not  one  of  direct  proportion,  but  is  influenced  by  so 
many  factors  that  conclusions  based  upon  the  measured  rainfall  alone 
are  apt  to  be  misleading. 

RAINFALL. 

Since  the  water  supply  comes  primarily  from  the  rains,  it  is  well  be- 
fore describing  the  different  portions  of  the  basin  in  detail  to  present 
some  of  the  broader  facts  concerning  the  amount  and  distribution  of 
the  precipitation.  Compared  with  the  size  of  the  basin,  there  are  but 
few  stations  at  which  rainfall  has  been  measured  for  a long  series  of 
years,  and  these  unfortunately  are  mainly  in  the  valleys,  where  the 
precipitation  is  least.  As  a general  thing,  it  may  be  said  that  in  this 
basin,  owing  to  the  diversity  of  topography  in  the  higher  lands,  the 
rainfall  increases  with  the  altitude,  and  therefore  the  greater  part  of 
the  precipitation  occurs  along  the  northeastern  edge  of  the  basin,  while 
out  on  the  great  plains  through  which  the  Gila  flows,  and  where  the 
best  agricultural  land  is  situated,  there  is  the  least  moisture,  the  aver- 
age at  Yuma  being  less  than  3 inches,  at  Texas  Hill,  4 inches;  at 
Maricopa,  5 inches;  and  at  Casa  Grande,  a little  over  4 inches;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  near  and  among  the  mountains,  or  rather  the  slopes 
of  the  edge  of  the  great  plateau,  the  rainfall  increases  to  10,  15,  or 
even  20  inches  and  over. 

The  precipitation  of  this  basin  is  given  in  the  various  publications 
of  the  Signal  Service,  and  for  the  present  purpose  it  is  sufficient  to 
present  in  graphic  form  some  of  the  general  results.  On  Fig.  22(5  is 
given  the  annual  rainfall  for  seventeen  stations,  the  amount  of  rainfall 
for  each  year  being  represented  by  the  height  of  the  black  blocks,  the 
diagram  being  similar  to  that  for  the  Rio  Grande  Basin.  Wherever  a 
blank  occurs  on  this  sheet,  it  signifies  that  no  rainfall  observations 
were  made,  or  that  they  were  incomplete.  In  looking  at  this  diagram, 
the  most  striking  fact  is  the  exceedingly  irregular  character  of  the  rain- 
fall, its  variation  in  amount  at  one  place  from  year  to  year,  and  lack  of 
coincidence  for  the  same  year  for  several  places ; that  is  to  say,  while 
at  one  place  there  is  less  rainfall  for  a given  year  than  in  the  year  pre- 
ceding, for  another  locality  there  may  be  more.  There  is,  however,  a 
certain  general  variation  which  may  be  traced  in  a broad  way;  that  is 
taking  all  of  the  stations  for  any  one  year,  the  average  shows  often  a 
decided  difference  from  that  of  the  average  of  all  stations  for  the  year 
preceding  or  succeeding.  In  order  to  bring  this  out,  the  average  for 
all  stations  in  and  adjoining  the  basin  has  been  plotted,  as  shown  in  the 
central  figure  in  the  bottom  row  of  the  diagram.  On  examining  this, 
the  most  notable  features  are  the  excessive  rainfalls  of  18G8,  1874, 
1878  and  1884,  and  the  diminished  rainfalls  of  1870,  1880  and  1885, 


300 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


showing  a curious  alternation  of  ten-year  periods,  which,  however, 
may  be  regarded  as  coincidences. 


00  00 


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Fig.  226 Diagram  of  annual  rainfall  in  the  Gila  Basin,  Arizona. 


U.  S.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


Twelfth  annual  report  pl.  lxxvI 


Prescott. 

Elevation.5,389  feet. 


Fort  Verde. 
Elevation,  3,501)  feet. 


Fort  McDowell. 
Elevation,  1,H00  feet. 


Fort  Bowie. 
Elevation,  4,9211  feet. 


Fort  Grant. 
Elevation,  4.914  feet. 


Yuma. 

Elevation,  141  feet. 


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4 inches. 

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4 inches. 

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2 inches. 

1 ini  h. 

4 inches. 

3 inches. 

2 inches. 

1 inch. 

4 inches. 

3 inches. 

2 inches. 

1 inch. 

4 inches. 

3 inches. 

2 inches. 

1 inch. 

4 inches. 

3 inches. 

2 inches. 
1 inch. 


AVERAGE  MONTHLY  RAINFALL  AT  STATIONS  IN  THE  GILA  BASIN,  ARIZONA. 


USftv 

OF  i HE 

UNIVEHSITV  OF  ILLINOIS 


% 


NEWELL.] 


RAINFALL  AND  RUN-OFF. 


301 


The  year  1884  was  an  unusually  rainy  one  throughout  this  basin,  as 
well  as  throughout  a great  part  of  the  West,  as  previously  noted,  while 
1885  was  a year  of  minimum  precipitation.  Since  those  years,  the 
average  rainfall  has  been  nearly  constant,  and  perhaps  diminishing 
slightly  through  1888  and  1889.  There  is,  of  course,  no  regularity 
about  such  matters,  but  a study  of  the  experience  of  the  past  is  valu- 
able, as  indicating  the  range  through  which  the  amount  of  precipita- 
tion has  varied,  and  therefore  through  which  it  may  alternate  again. 

While  the  amount  of  annual  rainfall  is  important,  it  does  not  have 
snch  a direct  bearing  upon  agriculture  as  does  the  monthly  and 
seasonal  distribution  of  the  rain;  in  other  words,  a small  annual  pre- 
cipitation may  be  compensated  for  by  a distribution  of  rainfall  such 
that  it  all  occurs  during  the  months  when  most  needed.  On  the  other 
hand,  a large  annual  precipitation  may  be  of  small  use  to  the  farmer 
from  the  greater  part  occurring  at  times  when  the  water  is  not  needed, 
and  when  it  runs  off  into  the  rivers.  PI.  lxxvi  shows  graphically  the 
relative  amount  of  rainfall  during  the  months  for  six  different  stations. 
This  is  the  average  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years,1  and  while  it  does  not 
represent  the  amount  which  may  be  expected  to  fall  on  any  one  month,  it 
does  show  the  distribution  through  long  periods  of  time.  The  most 
notable  feature  of  this  diagram  is  the  gradual  decrease  of  the  rain  from 
February  to  June,  the  sudden  increase  in  July  and  August,  a second 
diminution  in  the  fall,  nearly,  though  not  quite,  to  that  of  early  summer, 
and  a second  gradual  increase  in  the  winter  to  an  amount  about  half 
that  of  the  summer. 

The  relation  between  the  rainfall  and  the  amount  of  water  which 
flows  in  the  river,  commonly  known  as  the  run-off,  is  not  a matter  of 
direct  proportion,  as  before  noted,  on  account  of  the  many  modifying 
circumstances.  A rainfall  of  1 inch  may  or  may  not  cause  a greater 
rise  than  one  of  half  an  inch,  depending  upon  the  rate  at  which  it  falls. 
For  example,  a long-continued,  gentle  rain  may  slowly  saturate  the 
ground  and  contribute  very  little  to  the  run-off,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  same  amount  of  water  falling  in  a sudden  local  storm  often 
causes  an  immediate  response  in  the  streams  and  produces  a violent  flood. 
Although  a knowledge  of  the  rainfall  can  not  give  information  as  to 
the  water  flowing  in  a river,  yet  it  is  of  the  greatest  value  in  other  con- 
nections. 

In  this  connection  PI.  lxxvii,  showing  a portion  of  the  drainage  area 
of  the  ill-fated  Hassayampa  Reservoir,  is  introduced  to  exhibit  the  char- 
acteristic topography  of  the  higher  part  of  the  Gila  Basin.  In  the 
background  are  shown  the  steep  slopes  of  the  mountains,  almost  bare 
of  vegetation,  and  from  which  in  time  of  rain  the  . water  runs  immedi- 
ately into  the  gullies  and  canyons.  This  view  shows  the  Hassayampa 
Reservoir  shortly  after  it  was  filled  with  water  for  the  first  time,  the 


1 Charts  showing  the  normal  monthly  rainfall  in  the  U uited  States  extracted  from  the  monthly  weather 
review,  with  notes  and  tables  prepared  under  the  direction  of  Gen.  A.  W.  Gieely,  Chief  Signal  Officer; 
Washington,  1889. 


302 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


tops  of  the  higher  trees  still  appearing  above  the  water.  The  vegeta- 
tion throughout  that  country  is  very  scanty,  and,  as  shown  in  the  fore- 
ground, there  is  none  of  the  smaller  growth  and  carpet  of  grass  so  com- 
mon in  the  humid  regions. 


UPPElt  GILA  DISTRICT. 

The  headwater  basins  of  the  Gila,  as  shown  on  the  map,  are  as  fol- 
lows: Upper  Gila,  San  Pedro,  Verde,  and  Upper  Salt.  The  Trunk 
ltiver  divisions  are  the  Middle  Gila,  Lower  Salt,  and  Lower  Gila,  while 
the  principal  lost  river  basins  are  the  Agua  Fria,  Hassayampa,  and 
Santa  Cruz,  each  of  which  will  be  discussed  in  order. 

The  Upper  Gila  district  or  headwaters  of  the  main  Gila  may  be  con- 
sidered as  including  that  part  of  the  basin  from  the  highest  catchment 
down  to  the  buttes  above  Florence,  excluding,  however,  the  San  Pedro. 
This  area  embraces  that  portion  of  the  basin  from  which  the  most 
water  may  be  supposed  to  come,  as  well  as  certain  large  bodies  of  irri- 
gated and  irrigable  lands.  The  total  area  is  10,930  square  miles,  com- 
prising 3,893  square  miles  in  Socorro  County;  15G  square  miles  in 
Sierra,  and  2,818  in  Grant  County — these  three  counties  being  in  New 
Mexico;  and  in  Arizona — 4,220  square  miles  in  Graham  County;  880 
square  miles  in  Gila  County,  and  530  square  miles  in  Pinal  County. 

The  elevation  ranges  from  3,000  feet  up  to  10,000  on  the  highest 
peaks.  The  principal  streams,  besides  the  Gila  itself,  are  the  San 
Francisco  River  and  its  branches,  the  Gila  Bonita,  and  the  Mogollon 
River.  The  San  Francisco  is  a perennial  stream,  which  derives  its 
principal  supply  from  melting  snow,  and  becomes  very  low-,  although  it 
has  not  actually  become  dry  before  the  summer  rains. 

The  Gila  in  this  portion  of  its  course  Hows  throughout  the  year,  and 
is  subject  to  sudden  and  violent  floods,  especially  during  the  summer 
season.  The  supply  for  this  district  is  comparatively  ample,  and  there- 
fore no  attempt  lias  been  made  to  increase  it  by  storage.  During  1889 
and  1890  crops  suffered  greatly  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  water,  for, 
judging  from  general  report,  there  was  less  water  than  during  the 
previous  decade.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  supply  was  amide 
for  the  acreage  irrigated  in  the  census  year.  In  general,  for  wheat, 
barley  and  oats,  water  was  plentiful,  but  late  crops  often  suffered  and 
were  lost. 

In  the  valleys  comprised  within  this  district  crops  to  the  extent  of 
9,137  acres,  or  14-3  square  miles,  were  raised  by  irrigation  in  the  census 
year.  This  amounts  to  a little  over  one-tenth  of  1 per  cent  of  the 
total  area  of  the  district.  The  largest  body  of  irrigated  land  is  in  the 
Pueblo  Viejo  Valley,  extending  from  the  canyons  above  Solomonville 
westward.  In  this  valley,  besides  the  land  under  crop,  there  are  large 
tracts  to  which  water  can  be  brought  by  the  ditches  at  present  in  oper- 
ation, the  names  of  which,  as  reported  to  the  survey  by  Mr.  T.  E. 
Farish,  in  1889,  are  given  below.  Under  the  head  of  acres  is  the  prob- 
able acreage  which  the  ditch  may  be  made  to  cover. 


HASSAYAMPA  RESERVOIR 


library 
of  '• 

UNIVERSITY  Or  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.] 


WATER  SUPPLY  OF  SAN  PEDRO  RIVER. 


303 


Ditches  and  irrigable  lands. 


Length. 

Covers. 

Length. 

Covers. 

Miles. 

9 

Acres. 

6,000 

3. 000 

6,  000 

6. 000 

1,  500 

2,  000 

2,  000 

Miles. 

5 

Acres. 
2, 000 

7 

8 

4,  500 

g 

5 

2,  500 

12 

3 

6 

3i  000 
1,000 
1,  500 

4 

5 

4 

Gonzales 

5 

Besides  the  above  there  are  two  or  three  small  private  ditches,  cover- 
ing in  the  aggregate  about  4,000  acres,  bringing  up  the  entire  acreage 
which  could  be  reclaimed  by  ample  water  to  45,000  acres.  In  Pinal 
County  there  are  three  private  canals  between  the  mouth  of  the  San 
Pedro  and  the  town  of  Riverside,  as  follows : 


Length. 

Covers. 

Miles. 

2i 

1* 

U 

Acres. 

480 

480 

320 

Many  of  the  canals  given  above  have  sufficient  water  at  all  times  for 
the  area  under  crop,  while  others  are  reported  to  be  dry  for  a few  weeks 
in  June  and  July.  The  question  of  water  storage,  however,  has  mot  as 
yet  attained  great  prominence,  as  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  tilled 
lands  in  this  basin  along  the  river  have  ample  water,  and  there  are 
still  tracts  in  various  localities  which  may,  with  proper  care  and  economy 
of  water,  be  brought  under  irrigation. 

THE  SAN  PEDKO  DISTRICT. 

The  San  Pedro  rises  in  Sonora,  Mexico,  and  flows  northerly  through 
Cochise  County,  a corner  of  Pima,  and  the  western  end  of  Pinal  County, 
Arizona,  entering  the  Gila  below  Dudleyville,  45  miles  above  Florence. 
This  total  area  comprises  about  2,820  square  miles,  of  which  120  miles 
are  in  Mexico,  1,900  miles  in  Cochise  County,  267  in  Pima,  and  533  in 
Pinal  County.  The  limits  of  this  district  can  not  be  accurately  defined 
as  there  are  no  good  maps  of  this  extreme  southern  portion  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  outlines  can  be  sketched  only  in  a general  manner. 
Eastward  of  this  district  and  south  of  the  upper  Gila  district  is  a large 
area  of  about  5,700  square  miles,  which  has  been  included  within  the 
hydrographic  basin  of  the  Gila,  but  in  which  there  are  no  large  streams, 
whatever  rainfall  there  is  being  usually  evaporated  before  streams  of 
any  size  are  formed. 

The  water  supply  of  this  basin  comes  almost  entirely  from  the  San 
Pedro  River,  which  is  perennial,  but  which,  like  all  other  streams  of  the 
basin,  fluctuates  greatly.  The  season  of  scarcity  usually  occurs  in  May 
and  June,  the  rains  of  summer  tending  to  swell  the  river  in  July,  Au- 


304 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


gust,  and  September.  No  attempts  at  storage  have  been  made,  but  the 
irrigators  appreciate  the  necessity  of  so  doing,  and  regard  this  matter 
as  of  first  importance.  The  supply  is  considered  sufficient  for  the  small 
grains  and  hay,  but  for  late  crops  of  corn  and  beaus  there  is  sometimes 
a scarcity.  It  is  reported  that  there  was  more  water  in  1890  than  for 
some  years  previous. 

The  river,  receiving  most  of  its  waters  from  a country  of  very  light 
snowfall,  depends  for  the  greater  part  upon  the  showers  of  summer. 
For  many  miles  it  flows  over  a sandy  bed  between  high  banks.  During 
the  rainy  season  the  waters  rise  suddenly,  even,  it  is  reported,  to  12 
feet  in  places,  assuming  then  the  character  of  a torrent,  in  droughts 
it  shrinks  to  an  insignificant  stream  of  clear  water,  sinking  into  the 
sands  and  again  reappearing,  where  the  ground  water  is  forced  to  the 
surface  by  impervious  layers  or  bed  rock. 

In  the  upper  San  Pedro  Valley  are  several  thousand  acres  devoted  to 
stock  raising,  much  of  which  can,  however,  be  irrigated  in  time  by  a 
careful  conservation  of  the  waters.  For  a distance  of  over  60  miles 
along  the  river  small  ditches  have  been  taken  out.  The  soil  of  the  val- 
ley is  fertile,  producing  good  crops  of  alfalfa,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  vege- 
tables, and  various  fruits. 

The  following  is  a list  of  the  canals,  as  given  by  Mr.  T.  E.  Farish  in 
1889: 

Canals  of  San  Pedro  Valley. 


Length. 

Covers. 

Brown 

Miles. 

H 

Acres. 

160 

Cook 

q 

200 

Dodson  

2 

320 

Puscli 

2 

640 

Bates 

14 

160 

Length 

Covers. 

Miles. 

14 

14 

2 

11 

1 

Acres. 

320 

320 

480 

480 

80 

Harrington 

In  the  lower  portion  of  its  course  the  river  is  in  places  dry,  owing  to 
the  diversions  made  by  a large  number  of  small  canals.  In  addition 
to  the  main  stream  there  are  in  the  mountains,  at  the  outlets  of  various 
canyons,  a number  of  small  springs,  whose  waters  have  been  used  for 
agricultural  purposes  and  which  are  of  considerable  value  to  the  own- 
ers, but  these  do  not  form  a notable  feature  in  the  water  supply  of  the 
district.  The  total  area  upon  which  crops  were  raised  in  this  district 
during  the  census  year  was  2,672  acres,  or  nearly  4-2  square  miles,  or 
• 0T5  per  cent  of  the  entire  basin. 

Water  storage  is  urgently  needed,  and  there  are  unquestionably 
facilities  for  this,  the  great  obstacle  being  the  lack  of  information  as  to 
the  amount  of  water  available.  Measurements  of  water  in  this  basin 
were  begun  at  a station  near  Dudleyville,  to  obtain  the  amount  dis- 
charged into  the  Gila.  The  station  was  placed  at  this  point  largely 
from  the  fact  that  it  could  be  operated  in  connection  with  the  ganging 


NEWELL.] 


IRRIGATION  NEAR  FLORENCE,  ARIZONA. 


305 


station  at  the  Buttes,  above  Florence.  The  measurements  were  begun 
on  April  9,  1890,  and  continued  until  the  hydrographic  fieldwork  was 
suspended.  The  results  are  as  follows : 

San  Pedro — Dudleyville,  Arizona. 

[Drainage  area,  2,870  square  miles.] 


Discharge. 

Run  off. 

Month. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Total  for 
month. 

Depth. 

Per 

square 

mile. 

1890. 

Sec.  feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Acre  feet. 

Inches. 

Sec.  feet. 

April  9 to  30 

21 

5 

14 

833 

■005 

•005 

May 

9 

5 

6 

369 

•002 

•002 

5 

1 

3 

179 

•001 

•001 

July 

225 

1 

13 

800 

•005 

•005 

August 

507 

102 

295 

18,  140 

■121 

•105 

•134 

It  so  happened  that  the  gaugiugs  were  made  during  a year  when 
the  floods  were  apparently  small,  although  at  a season  when  they  were 
liable  to  occur  with  violence.  After  the  work  was  suspended  there 
were  several  periods  of  high  water,  but  the  quantities  discharged 
can  not  be  computed,  as  the  gauge  rod  was  injured.  Judging  from  the 
reports  ot  residents  of  the  valley,  this  was  a year  of  minimum  river  flow, 
so  that  the  measurements  must  be  considered  as  far  below  the  average. 

THE  MIDDLE  GILA  DISTRICT. 

The  middle  Gila  district  is  a trunk  river  division,  and  depends  for 
its  watgr  supply  upon  the  amount  which  comes  from  the  two  districts 
above  mentioned,  namely,  the  upper  Gila  and  the  San  Pedro.  The 
limits  of  this  district  are  somewhat  arbitrary,  the  district  being  con- 
sidered as  extending  from  the  Buttes  above  Florence  to  the  junction  of 
the  Gila  with  the  Salt,  and  including  on  both  sides  of  the  river  that 
portion  of  the  great  plain  which  can  be  irrigated  from  the  Gila  River. 
There  were  in  this  district  6,619  acres  of  crops  irrigated,  as  shown  by  the 
census  of  1890.  The  water  supply  for  this  land  comes  wholly  from  the 
Gila  River,  and  the  development  of  agriculture  within  the  district  de- 
pends upon  the  conservation  and  economic  employment  of  this  water. 
In  the  latter  part  of  June  the  bed  of  the  river  is  often  dry,  its  water 
being  diverted  by  the  numerous  canals  of  this  district.  Floods  are  lia- 
ble to  occur  with  great  violence  in  July  and  August,  as  well  as  in  Jan- 
uary, February,  and  March.  There  is  usually  sufficient  water  to  ma- 
ture one  crop,  but  it  is  reported  that  the  second  crop  has  been  lost 
repeatedly.  According  to  the  statements  of  the  irrigators,  the  year 
1890  was  one  of  the  dryest  known,  while  during  1889  the  supply  may 
be  considered  as  about  at^an  average. 

In  the  Middle  Gila  Valley,  beginning  just  below  the  canyon,  12  miles 
above  Florence,  the  following  canals  were  reported  by  the  hydrographers 
as  taking  water  from  the  river  in  1889 : 

12  geol.,  pt.  2 20 


306 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


t'anals  of  the  Middle  Gila  Valley. 


Length. 

Covering. 

Length. 

Covering. 

Moore’s 

Miles. 

3 

. 1 cres. 
300 

Miles. 

6 

Acres. 

1, 000 
1,000 
1,000 
1,000 
1,000 
200 

McClelland 

3 

300 

Sharp  

3 

160 

7 

Stiles  

4 

300 

4 

9 

200 

4 

Brash 

4 

400 

3 

Florence 

43 

20,  000 

3 

300 

The  amount  of  water  available  for  this  basin  was  accurately  determined 
by  the  Geological  Survey  during  about  one  year;  but  their  work  was 
stopped  at  the  end  of  this  time  by  lack  of  further  appropriation.  The 
gauging  station  was  established  at  the  Buttes,  about  15  miles  above 
Florence,  at  a location  well  known  from  the  favorable  advantages  which 
it  offers  for  the  storage  of  water.  Here  measurements  were  made  from 
August  26,  1889,  to  September  1, 1890,  the  results  of  which  are  given  in 
the  following  table,  and  are  shown  graphically  on  PL  lxx  vm.  According 
to  the  statements  of  men  who  have  been  for  some  years  in  that  district, 
the  water  supply  of  that  year  was  lower  than  usual.  This  assumption, 
however,  will  not  hold  if  diversions  of  the  water  continue  to  be  made  in 
the  Upper  Gila  district,  where  there  is  still  a large  acreage  of  good  arable 
land  to  be  brought  under  cultivation. 


Gila  River,  Buttes,  Arizona. 
[Drainage  area,  15,370  square  miles.] 


Discharge. 

Total  for 
month. 

Eun  off. 

Month. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Depth. 

Per  square 
mile. 

1889. 

Aug.  26-31 

Second-ft. 

124 

Second-ft. 

110 

Second-ft. 

115 

Acre  feet. 
7,  072 

Inch. 

•008 

Second-ft. 

■007 

210 

90 

128 

7,616 
9,  655 

*009 

•008 

210 

140 

157 

*014 

•012 

250 

156 

212 

12i  614 
16,  912 

41, 820 
32,  079 
23,  800 
14, 161 
5,  350 
1,666 
7,  995 

*015 

*013 

890 

124 

275 

•020 

•018 

1890. 

2, 100 
1,  514 
710 

310 

680 

•051 

•044 

405 

578 

•039 

•037 

300 

387 

•029 

•025 

333 

158 

238 

•017 

•015 

150 

35 

87 

•007 

•006 

35 

27 

28 

•002 

•002 

3, 112 

11 

130 

•009 

008 

6,  330 

1,115 

3,137 

192,  925 

•235 

•204 

6,  037 
503 

366,  593 

•447 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  above  table  is  given  the  depth  of  the  run- 
off in  inches,  and  it  is  of  interest  to  note  the  small  amount  of  this  and 
the  relation  between  it  and  the  depth  of  rainfall  as  measured  at  various 
points  in  and  near  the  basin. 

In  the  following  table  the  depths  of  precipitation  is  given  as  pub- 
lished in  the  reports  of  the  Signal  Service  for  the  months  during  which 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  GILA  RIVER  AT  THE  BUTTES,  ARIZONA. 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  LXXVIII 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.] 


RAINFALL  IN  THE  GILA  BASIN. 


307 


tlie  river  gaugings  were  made,  and  at  the  bottom  is  the  mean  of  the 
depths  of  the  stations  reporting.  If  it  be  considered  that  this  in  a 
general  way  represents  the  average  for  the  basin,  or  at  least  varies 
with  the  average  rainfall  in  the  basin,  a comparison  can  be  made 
between  the  rainfall  and  run-off.  The  heavy  rains  of  September  do 
not  appear  to  have  had  an  immediate  influence  on  the  river.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  decreasing  rainfall  in  September,  October,  and  Novem- 
ber is  accompanied  by  a gradual  increase  in  discharge  of  the  river, 
indicating  that  while  the  precipitation  may  be  less  in  amount,  yet,  as 
winter  approaches  the  showers  may  have  a greater  and  greater  influ- 
ence on  the  river  discharge. 

Comparing  the  tota  l of  the  monthly  mean  precipitation — 15-50  inches — 
with  the  total  depth  of  run-off  for  the  year — 0.447  inch — it  appears  that  a 
little  less  than  3 per  cent  of  the  rainfall  of  the  basin  reaches  the  gaug- 
ing station,  under  the  assumption  that  this  average  of  the  measured  rain- 
fall represented  that  for  the  entire  basin.  If  no  diversions  of  water  for 
irrigation  had  been  made  in  the  upper  Gila  and  San  Pedro  districts, 
this  percentage  would  have  been  larger,  reaching  possibly  as  high  as 
5 per  cent.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  over  one-half  of  the  run-off  of  the  en- 
tire year  came  in  August. 


Monthly  precipitation  at  station s in  and  adjoining  the  Gita  Basin,  in  inches. 


Station. 

1889. 

1890. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June.  July. 

Aug. 

Bisbee 

3-79 

0-38 

0-20 

0-29 

2-34 

0-20 

0-24 

015 

000 

0-03 

6-07 

5-71 

0-58 

1 11 

T 

012 

1-28 

0-08 

0*95 

o-oo 

0-03 

3-90 

5-07 

Dragoon 

0-18 

1-55 

0-78 

o-oo 

0-82 

0- 97 

1- 88 

2-11 

1*63 

0*43 

1-46 

000 

052 

0-32 

0-75 

T 

o-oo 

o-oo 

T 

T 

4-09 

4-73 

Fort  hayartl 

2-19 

0-67 

o-oo 

T 

1-40 

T 

Oil 

o-oo 

4-17 

3-86 

Fort  Bowie 

2-79 

0-74 

T 

0-57 

0-78 

0-23 

0'03 

0-59 

o-oo 

T 

4-97 

4-0t> 

Fort  Grant 

0-69 

0-94 

0-16 

1-11 

1-58 

0-4G 

0-46 

0-92 

o-oi 

0-20 

3-24 

4-54 

Fort  Huachuca 

2'4« 

004 

0T4 

0-75 

1-50 

010 

T 

0-34 

o-oo 

o-oo 

4-38 

4-49 

Fort  Thomas 

0-38 

026 

0-34 

1-18 

1-92 

0-49 

0-45 

1-21 

o-oo 

T 

202 

411 

252 

0-04 

o-oo 

0*90 

0-75 

015 

0-79 

o-oo 

o-oo 

2-49 

630 

San  Carlos 

213 

0-97 

0-71 

1*17 

0-50 

0-83 

2-05 

523 

210 

3-77 

1*40 

293 

0-88 

064 

1- 31 

2- 63 

0-00 

o-oo 

000 

2-25 

3-26 

Teviston 

230 

0-60 

0-20 

0-20 

3-80 

T 

0-20 

3-00 

o-oo 

o-oo 

5-20 

4-00 

Wilcox 

2'79 

0-80 

0-02 

0-50 

1-61 

0-35 

0-11 

0-63 

o-oo 

0-15 

2-64 

5-20 

Mean 

1-80 

0-63 

0-23 

1-13 

1-98 

0-67 

0-27 

0-97 

o-oo 

0-03 

3-24 

4-61 

Runoff 

0-009 

0-014 

0015 

0-020 

0-051 

0-039 

0-029 

0-017 

0-007 

0-002 

0-009 

•235 

Per  cent 

0-5 

2-22 

6-5 

1-7 

2-57 

5-82 

10-7 

1-7 

o-oo 

6-6 

2-7 

50 

The  most  important  question  is  as  to  how  much  water  could  have 
been  saved  during  this  year,  if  a suitable  dam  had  been  at  this  place. 
It  is  evident  that  not  all  the  water  could  be  held;  a certain  amount 
must  be  allowed  to  flow  down  the  channel  for  the  ditches  below. 

It  is  also  necessary  to  assume  that  there  would  be  a constant  loss  of 
water  by  evaporation.  The  measurements  of  this  factor  have  not  been 
continued  for  a time  sufficiently  long  to  give  a large  range  of  results, 
but  from  an  examination  of  these  and  other  data  the  following  rate  has 
been  assumed  in  round  numbers: 


308 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


Loss  by  evaporation  from  a water  surface. 


January  . 
February 
March  - ' - 
April 

May 

June 

July 


Month. 


Quantity. 

Mouth. 

Quantity. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

3 

August 

13 

4 

September 

10 

6 

( Ictober 

6 

7 

November 

r 

10 

11 

December 

4 

12 

Total 

91 

In  order  to  obtain  general  ideas  concerning  tlie  amount  of  water 
which  could  have  been  stored  during  the  year  in  which  measurements 
were  made,  one  or  two  examples  may  be  given,  taking  different  rates 
of  outflow  for  the  various  months.  For  any  given  acreage  under  culti- 
vation a certain  amount  of  water  must  be  allowed  to  flow  in  the  river 
all  the  year  round,  less  being  needed  in  winter  than  in  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer, but  some  being  used  even  in  the  former  season,  especially  on  for- 
age crops.  These  examples  are  placed  in  tabular  form  for  convenience. 

In  the  first  case  it  is  assumed  that  no  water  is  held  during  September, 
October,  and  November  of  1889,  but  that  in  December,  January,  and 
February  only  150  second-feet  are  allowed  toflow  in  the  river;  in  March, 
April,  and  May,  250  second-feet;  in  June,  July,  and  August,  300  second- 
feet.  The  first  column  gives  the  months.  The  second  column  the  average 
inflow  of  the  supposed  reservoir  in  second-feet;  that  is,  the  measured 
amount  of  water  flowing  in  the  river.  The  third  column  gives  the 
amount  assumed  to  be  discharged  steadily  from  the  reservoir.  The 
fourth  column  gives,  in  round  numbers,  the  loss  by  evaporation  in  acre- 
feet,  making  certain  assumptions  as  to  the  size  of  the  reservoir  and  con- 
sequent area  of  surface  exposed  to  evaporation.  The  fifth  column  gives 
the  amount  of  water  which  is  left  in  the  reservoir  at  the  end  of  each 
month. 


Mouth. 

Iuflow. 

Outflow. 

Evapora- 

tion. 

Bal.  at  end 
of  month. 

1889. 

Sec.  feet. 

' 128 

See.  feet. 

Acre-feet. 

Acre-feet. 

157 

212 

275 

150 

100 

7,400 

1890. 

680 

150 

500 

39,  760 
62,  728 

578 

150 

1,000 

387 

250 

2, 000 

69.  222 

238 

250 

2,  000 

66.  502 

May 

87 

250 

3,  000 

53.  396 

28 

300 

2.  000 

35.  076 

July 

130 

300 

2,  000 

22,  536 

3, 137 

300 

4,000 

193,  036 

In  the  second  case,  all  of  the  water  being  allowed  to  flow  during  Sep- 
tember and  October,  200  second -feet  is  discharged  into  the  river  during 
November,  December,  January,  and  February,  and  250  second-feet  in 
March  and  April.  This  amount  is  then  increased  to  300  second-feet  in 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  SALT  RIVER  ABOVE  PHENIX,  ARIZONA. 


5 


X 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 

10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25 


library 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWEI.I..  1 


WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  STORAGE. 


309 


May  and  350  in  June,  July,  and  August,  leaving  a balance  at  all  times 
in  the  reservoir  as  shown  in  the  fifth  column. 


Month. 

Inflow. 

Outflow. 

Evapora- 

tion. 

Bal.  at  end 
of  month. 

1889. 

Sec.  feet. 
128 

Sec.  feet. 

Acre-feet. 

Acre  feet. 

157 

9.12 

200 

700 

275 

200 

80 

5.  230 

1890. 

680 

200 

400 

34,  330 
54, 320 
00,  760 
58,  045 
42,  445 
21,  295 

578 

200 

1,  000 
2,  000 
2.000 

387 

250 

238 

250 

87 

300 

2,  500 

28 

350 

2,  000 

1,  500 

130 

350 

6,  275 

3,137 

350 

4,000 

170, 275 

The  amount  of  land  which  would  be  irrigated  by  the  streams  which 
have  been  assumed  in  these  examples  as  coining  from  the  reservoir  will 
vary  largely  with  the  character  of  crop,  especially  the  proportion  of 
forage  plants,  these  requiring  water  at  all  seasons.  A conservative 
estimate,  however,  of  75  acres  to  the  second-foot  will  probably  cover  all 
contingencies.  This  duty,  as  is  recognized,  is  small,  from  the  fact  that 
the  water  is  returned  to  the  river  from  the  reservoir  and  is  not  taken 
directly  by  short  canals  upon  the  land.  In  the  first  case  assumed  in 
these  examples  of  a flow  of  300  second-feet  in  June,  July,  and  August, 
at  least  22,500  acres  can  be  covered,  and  in  the  second  case,  with  a 
larger  percentage  use  of  water  during  the  winter,  26,250  acres  can  be 
irrigated. 

These  examples  and  an  infinite  variety  of  others  which  might  be 
taken,  using  different  combinations  of  figures,  merely  serve  to  show  that 
even  in  a dry  year  sufficient  water  can  be  held  to  protect  a large  acre- 
age and  render  irrigation  a matter  of  certainty.  Other  engineers,  in 
figuring  the  amount  of  water  available,  will  undoubtedly  take  other 
values,  and  in  most  cases  they  will  estimate  that  a far  larger  acreage 
can  safely  be  covered,  since  these  examples  are  taken  with  a wide 
margin  of  safety. 

THE  VERDE  DISTRICT. 

The  Verde  district  embraces  the  drainage  basin  of  the  Verde  River 
and  its  tributaries,  having  a total  area  of  6,000  square  miles,  of  which 
the  greater  part  is  in  Yavapai  County,  only  700  square  miles  being  in 
Maricopa  County.  In  this  district  1,948  acres  of  crops  were  irrigated 
successfully  in  the  year  ending  June  30,  1890.  The  water  supply  in 
general  is  good,  and  a far  larger  area,  now  partly  irrigated,  can  be 
watered. 

Among  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  Verde  are  Walnut,  Granite, 
Oak,  Beaver,  and  Clear  Creeks.  Walnut  Creek  is  dry  during  a portion 
of  the  year,  its  waters  being  entirely  diverted  upon  the  adjacent  land. 


310 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


On  Granite  Creek  the  supply  is  reported  to  be  ample  for  the  acreage 
under  irrigation,  but  there  is  more  land  needing  the  waste  waters  of 
the  floods.  Oak  Creek  supplies  an  amount  more  than  sufficient  for  the 
lands  in  the  vicinity  of  Cornville.  The  other  streams  entering  below 
carry  larger  quantities  of  water  than  is  used  at  any  time. 

The  largest  body  of  irrigated  and  easily  irrigable  lands  is  in  the  Verde 
Valley  proper,  which  is  situated  in  the  southern  part  of  Yavapai  County, 
extending  from  a canyon  20  miles  or  more  above  Camp  Verde  to  another 
narrow  pass  about  10  miles  below  the  fort.  In  this  valley  large  crops 
of  alfalfa,  barley,  oats,  wheat,  corn,  and  potatoes  are  reported  to  be 
raised,  as  well  as  apples,  pears,  plums,  peaches,  and  apricots.  The 
Verde  River  here  flows  continuously,  with  an  occasional  flood  from  local 
rains.  The  water  supply  is  good,  but  crops  have  suffered  from  acci- 
dents to  canals  or  difficulty  of  turning  the  water  into  them. 

Measurements  of  the  discharge  of  the  Verde  were  attempted  at  a 
point  about  a mile  above  its  junction  with  the  Salt  River,  in  order  to 
obtain  the  amount  discharged  and  its  relative  importance.  The  station 
at  tliis  point  was  operated  in  connection  with  one  on  the  Salt  River, 
about  a mile  above  the  Verde,  and  observations  at  both  points  were 
carried  on  during  a large  portion  of  the  summer  and  fall  of  1889.  It 
was  found  impracticable,  however,  to  obtain  the  daily  heights  on  ac- 
count of  the  distance  of  these  stations  from  the  homes  of  persons  who 
were  competent  to  act  as  gauge  observers,  and  the  difficulty  of  measur- 
ing these  rivers  in  time  of  flood  necessitated  the  abandonment  of  the 
work  in  order  to  concentrate  all  efforts  on  the  Gila  River. 

The  results  of  the  measurements  are  given  in  the  following  table,  and 
they  may  also  be  found  in  greater  detail  in  the  previous  annual  report. 
These  do  not  show  a very  decided  fluctuation  of  the  river,  but  serve  to 
give  definite  ideas  as  to  the  ordinary  summer  discharge  of  this  stream: 


Verde  River,  1 mile  above  Salt  River. 
[Drainage  area,  6,000  square  miles.] 


Month. 

Discharge. 

Total  for 
month. 

Run  off'. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Depth. 

Per  sq.m. 

1889. 

August  14  31 

September 

Sec. -feet. 
480 
340 

Sec. -feet. 
154 
140 

Sec. -feet. 
207 
192 

Acre  feet. 
12,  730 
11,424 

Inch. 

•04 

•03 

Sec.  feet. 
•03 
•03 

THE  UPPER  SALT  DISTRICT. 

The  Upper  Salt  Basin  lies  between  the  Verde  and  the  Upper  Gila, 
and  is  similar  in  many  respects  to  these  headwater  basins.  The  total 
area  is  G,2G0  square  miles,  of  which  927  miles  are  in  Yavapai  County, 
1,935  miles  in  Apache,  2,430  miles  in  Gila,  420  in  Graham,  424  in  Mari- 
copa, and  124  in  Pinal  County.  Owing  to  the  mountainous  character  of 
this  district  there  were  only  815  acres  of  crops  cultivated  by  irrigation 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  SALT  RIVER  ABOVE  PHENIX,  ARIZONA. 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 


library 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  Of  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.] 


HEADWATERS  OF  SALT  RIVER. 


311 


in  the  census  year.  The  valleys  are  in  general  narrow,  the  only  open- 
ing of  any  importance  being  along  the  Salt  River,  between  Pinal  Creek 
and  Tonto  Creek.  The  water  supply  is,  therefore,  ample  for  all  the  ac- 
cessible land  of  this  district. 

This  basin  may  be  taken  as  including  the  area  of  the  Salt  River  head- 
waters down  to  the  junction  with  the  Verde.  The  country  is  rugged 
and  heavily  timbered  at  the  higher  elevations,  and  there  are  not  many 
large  valleys  along  the  river  where  agriculture  can  be  carried  on.  The 
principal  streams  entering  from  the  north  are  Black  River,  Bonita, 
White  Mountain,  Carrizo,  Cibicu,  Canyon,  Cherry,  and  Tonto  Creeks, 
and  from  the  south  Pinal  and  Pinto  Creeks.  The  principal  agricultural 
land  of  the  basin  extends  from  a point  below  Pinal  Creek  to  Tonto 
Creek,  some  farming  being  carried  on  also  along  Sally  May  Creek  and 
Tonto  Creek. 

Measurements  of  the  water  flowing  out  of  this  drainage  basin  were 
made,  as  stated  above,  at  a point  about  a mile  above  the  junction  with 
the  Verde,  being  carried  on  at  the  same  time  that  measurements  were 
made  on  that  river,  and  later  at  a point  in  the  canyons  about  20  miles 
above  the  Verde.  The  results  of  these  latter  measurements  are  given  in 
the  following  table,  which  exhibits  the  ordinary  range  in  amount  of  the 
summer  water: 


Salt  River  in  canyon — 20  miles  above  the  Verde. 
[Drainage  area,  5,880  square  miles.] 


Month. 

Discharge. 

Total  for 
month. 

Run  off. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Depth. 

Sq.  mile. 

1890. 

Sec.  feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Acre  feet. 

Inch. 

Sec.  feet. 

May  28  31 

520 

520 

520 

31,980 

•10 

•09 

Jmie 

520 

193 

298 

17,  731 

•06 

•05 

July 

375 

185 

215 

13,  222 

•04 

04 

August  1-28 

2,  200 

000 

1.362 

83.  763 

■27 

•23 

THE  LOWER  SALT  DISTRICT. 

The  Lower  Salt  district  is  the  principal  subdivision  of  the  Gila  Basin, 
since  it  includes  the  largest  area  of  irrigated  land  and  the  greatest 
canal  systems  of  Arizona.  It  may  be  said  to  begin  at  the  junction  of 
the  Salt  and  Verde,  and  to  extend  to  or  below  the  great  bend  of  the 
Gila,  including  on  each  side  some  of  the  most  fertile  land  of  the  Terri- 
tory. The  total  acreage  on  which  crops  were  raised  by  irrigation  in 
the  census  year  was  29,171  acres.  This  is  but  an  insignificant  portion 
of  the  total  amount  on  which  products  might  be  raised  with  a sufficient 
water  supply,  for,  as  previously  stated,  there  are  enormous  tracts  of 
fertile  land,  whose  extent  is  so  great  that  no  probable  increase  of  water 
supply  can  cover  them. 

The  Salt  River  is  the  only  source  of  water;  the  situation  here  is  sim- 
ilar in  many  respects  to  that  of  the  middle  Gila  district,  but  lias  the 
advantage  that  the  headwater  districts  do  not  contain  such  large 


312 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


bodies  of  irrigable  laud  as  do  the  headwaters  above  the  middle  Gila. 
There  is  said  to  be  ample  water  for  the  present  acreage  cultivated  iu 
the  fall  and  spring,  but  in  summer  the  supply  is  scarce,  so  much  so 
that  crops  have  been  lost,  and  trees  and  shrubs  have  perished  for  lack 
of  water. 

In  the  Salt  River  Valley,  in  Maricopa  County,  the  following  canals 
were  reported  in  1889  as  being  taken  from  Salt  River: 


Canals. 

Length. 

Canals. 

Length. 

Miles. 

40 

22 

Miles. 

6 

5 

14 

22 

18 

4 

9 

4 

19 

3 

Mesa 

9 

It  may  be  added  that,  excepting  in  floods,  all  the  water  in  Salt  River 
has  been  utilized,  and  nothing  more  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  land 
reclamation  without  the  construction  of  storage  reservoirs.  If  this 
were  done  it  is  estimated  that  sufficient  water  could  be  impounded 
during  the  storm  floods  to  reclaim  double  the  area  now  under  cultiva- 
tion. The  soil  is  very  productive.  Large  crops  of  wheat,  barley,  and 
alfalfa  are  grown,  and  fruits  of  all  descriptions  flourish  and  yield 
bountifully. 

Measurements  of  the  amount  of  water  entering  this  subdivision  were 
made,  as  before  mentioned,  by  establishing  stations  on  the  Salt  and 
Verde  rivers,  a short  distance  above  their  junctions,  but  these  were 
continued  only  a few  months  as  it  was  found  impracticable  with  the 
small  force  available  to  keep  up  the  work.  Estimates  of  discharge, 
however,  have  been  prepared  by  Mr.  Samuel  A.  Davidson,  engineer  of 
the  Arizona  Canal  Company.  These  are  based  upon  weir  calculations 
of  the  water  flowing  over  the  submerged  dam  built  by  this  company  at 
their  headworks.  These  were  begun  in  August,  1888,  and  daily  obser- 
vations continued  up  to  the  present  time,  the  results  of  which  are  kindly 
given  by  Mr.  Davidson,  as  shown  in  the  following  table.  Measurements 
of  this  character  being  based  upon  certain  assumptions  and  the  use  of 
constants  determined  in  a small  way,  their  degree  of  accuracy  is  open 
to  question,  but,  at  least,  these  measurements,  or  rather  the  computa- 
tions based  upon  them,  have  a great  value  as  showing  the  relative 
amounts  of  water  in  the  different  months  and  seasons. 

On  PI.  lxxix  is  shown  graphically  the  daily  mean  discharge  as  com- 
puted by  Mr.  Davidson,  and  the  irregular  character  and  extraordinary 
fluctuations  of  the  stream  are  clearly  brought  out.  The  most  noticeable 
feature  is  the  great  flood  of  February  21,  1890,  when,  according  to  Mr. 
Davidson’s  computations,  the  discharge  increased  suddenly  from  1,000 
second-feet  to  over  143,000  second-feet.  This,  however,  is  eclipsed 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  KAWEAH  RIVER  AT  HOMER’S  RANCH,  CALIFORNIA,  1879  TO  1882. 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSES  °f 


Illinois 


NEWELL.] 


DISCHARGE  OF  SALT  RIVER. 


313 


by  the  flood  of  February  IS  to  2d,  1891,  which,  is  not  shown  upon  FI. 
lxxix,  the  data  being  received  too  late  for  illustration.  On  Febru- 
ary 17  the  mean  discharge  was  83d  second-feet,  increasing  the  next  day 
to  ld4,000  second-feet,  and  on  the  19th  to  276,000.  This  first  flood 
diminished  rapidly,  averaging  on  the  20th  only  69,100,  and  on  the  22d 
14,890.  This  was  followed  by  a second  swell  greater  than  the  first,  the 
flood  increasing  until  on  the  24th  a maximum  of  300,000  second-feet  was 
reached.  This  subsided  almost  as  rapidly  as  it  came,  so  that  by  the 
second  day  after  the  river  was  carrying  less  than  Id, 000  second-feet. 

This  flood  was  very  destructive,  carrying  away  bridges  and  portions 
of  canals,  submerging  great  areas  in  the  Gila  Y alley,  and  causing  a 
sudden  rise  in  the  Colorado,  as  shown  on  FI.  lxxiv,  the  greatest  flood 
for  that  decade  at  least.  The  Arizona  Canal  Company’s  weir  across 
the  Salt  River  was  damaged,  a portion  of  the  canal  washed  out,  and 
the  channel  of  the  stream  so  altered  that  computations  of  daily  discharge 
could  no  longer  be  made  without  new  data. 


Salt  River,  Arizona  Dam,  Arizona. 


[Drainage  area,  12,260  square  miles.] 


Month. 

Discharge. 

Total 

for 

month. 

Run  off*. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Depth. 

Per 

sq.  mile. 

1888. 

Sec.  feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Sec.  feet, 

Acre-feet. 

Inch. 

Sec.  feet. 

350 

21,  525 

. 03 

. 028 

350 

20,  825 

.03 

. 028 

October - 

350 

300 

331 

20;  356 

.03 

.027 

November 

5,  760 

425 

842 

50,  099 

.08 

.068 

December 

43, 489 

1,665 

6,698 

411, 927 

.63 

.545 

1889. 

January  

24,  953 

1,  665 

5,  947 

365,  740 

.56 

.48 

February  

3,  940 

1,  534 

2,  605 

144,  577 

.22 

.22 

March 

33,  794 

3,563 

8,  745 

537,817 

.82 

.71 

April 

5,  559 

2.  496 

3,975 

236,  512 

.36 

.32 

May 

1,784 

622 

1,039 

63,  898 

. 10 

.08 

June 

615 

356 

470 

27,  965 

.04 

.04 

July 

1,311 

334 

495 

30,  522 

.05 

.04 

August 

755 

389 

417 

25,  645 

.04 

.03 

September 

1, 172 

389 

521 

31,  000 

.05 

.04 

October 

704 

319 

440 

27,  060 

.04 

.04 

November 

629 

532 

576 

34,  272 

.05 

.05 

December 

25.  371 

557 

5.  686 

349, 689 

.53 

.46 

1890. 

January  

15,  750 

1,376 

4.  982 

306,  393 

.47 

.40 

February  

143, 288 

1,045 

10.  097 

560,  383 

.86 

.82 

March 

17,228 

2,  566 

6,  421 

394,  891 

.60 

.52 

April 

2,  077 

1.369 

1.  840 

109,  480 

.17 

. 15 

May 

1.  369 

630 

914 

56,211 

.09 

.08 

June 

672 

397 

511 

30,  404 

.05 

.04 

July 

872 

397 

524 

32,  226 

.05 

.04 

August 

7,  734 

1, 114 

3,  885 

238,  927 

.37 

.32 

September 

3,685 

725 

2,  339 

139, 170 

.21 

. 19 

( Ictober 

7,465 

753 

2,  768 

160,  232 

.25 

.23 

November 

30,  504 

766 

4,717 

280,  661 

.43 

.38 

December 

30,  366 

1,110 

6,  259 

384,  928 

.59 

.51 

1891. 

January 

17, 127 

L060 

3,  416 

210,  084 

.32 

.28 

February  

300.  000 

825 

39,  201 

2. 175.  655 

3.  32 

3. 10 

314 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


THE  LOWER  GILA  DISTRICT. 

The  Lower  Gila  District  may  be  said  to  include  the  arable  land  from 
Gila  Bend  to  Yuma,  where  the  Gila  River  empties  into  the  Colorado. 
This  is  a main-trunk  district,  receiving  the  waters  which  escape  from 
the  Middle  Gila  District  and  from  the  Lower  Salt,  and  since  these  in 
turn  receive  their  waters  from  four  head-water  districts,  it  will  be  rec- 
ognized that  the  supply  here  depends  very  largely  upon  the  action 
which  is  taken  in  these  six  subdivisions.  There  were  only  555  acres  on 
which  crops  were  reported  raised  by  irrigation  in  1889,  but  a far  greater 
acreage  has  been  brought  under  ditch.  There  are  a large  number  of 
extensive  canals  and  ditch  systems  projected  or  under  construction  in 
this  district,  but  whose  success  must  apparently  be  a matter  of  some 
doubt. 

The  land  of  the  Lower  Gila  District  is  of  great  fertility  and  is  adapted 
to  the  cultivation  of  many  fruits  of  the  semitropic  zone,  as,  for  example, 
oranges,  lemons,  and  other  citrus  fruits.  It  is  thus  known  as  the  cit- 
rus belt  of  Arizona,  and  promises  to  become  of  great  importance  in 
these  productions.  Besides  the  fruit,  alfalfa,  barley,  and  wheat  are  re- 
ported to  be  cultivated,  and  vineyards  have  been  successfully  planted. 
The  following  canals  were  reported  as  built  or  under  construction  in 
1889,  to  take  water  from  the  Gila  in  Maricopa  County: 


Canal. 

Length. 

Covers. 

Canal. 

Length. 

Covers. 

Miles. 

30 

Acres. 

20,  000 

5,  000 

Miles. 

14 

Acres. 

5, 000 
2,  000 

8 

8 

Enterprise 

12 

6^  000 

Gila  River  Irrigating  Co 

12 

8 

3,  000 
12,  000 

30 

18,  000 

Palmer 

22 

The  Gila  River  Irrigating  Company  proposes  to  build  a large  dam  at 
the  Black  Buttes  below  the  mouth  of  the  Hassayampa  and  carry  water 
south  and  southwest,  taking  in  the  entire  valley  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  to  the  Yuma  County  line,  making  a canal  75  miles  long,  covering 
500,000  acres  of  land.  The  Gila  Bend  Company  have  completed  22 
miles  of  their  canal,  under  which  3,400  acres  are  reported  to  be  irrigated 
at  present.  The  names  of  the  canals,  together  with  their  lengths  and 
amount  of  land  below  each,  taken  from  the  Gila  in  Yuma  County,  as  re- 
ported by  the  liydrographers,  are  given  below : 


Canal. 

Length. 

Covers. 

Canal. 

Length. 

Covers. 

Miles. 

Acres. 

Miles. 

Acres. 

35 

40,  000 

7 

2,  000 

5 

1,  500 

10 

4,000 

13 

10,  000 

8k 

2,  000 

22 

12,  000 

2,  500 

10 

i.  ooo 

3 

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OF  THE 

UWVMSITrOF  ILLINOIS 


U.  8.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


GAUGE  HEIGHT  OF  THE  KINGS  RIVER  A 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  LXXXII 


Jan.  Feb.  Mar.  Apr.  May.  June.  July. 


Aug.  Sept.  Oct. 


Nov.  Dec. 


12  feet. 

9 feet. 

G feet. 

3 feet. 

12  feet. 

9 feet. 

G feet. 

3 feet. 

12  feet. 

9 feet. 

6 feet. 

3 feet. 

12  feet. 

9 feet. 

6 feet. 

3 feet. 

12  feet. 

9 feet. 

6 feet. 

3 feet. 

12  feet. 

9 feet. 

6 feet. 

3 feet. 


MGSBURG,  CALIFORNIA,  1880  TO  1891. 


library 
OF  THE 


UNIVFP^ 


NEWELL.  ] 


LOST  RIVER  BASINS. 


315 


THE  AGUA  FRIA  AND  HASSAYAMPA  DISTRICTS. 

The  Agua  Fria  and  Hassayampa  districts  lie  south  and  west  of  the 
Verde  Basin  and  between  it  and  the  Lower  Gila  District.  The  water 
supply  of  each  is  so  small  and  the  amount  of  arable  land  so  large  that 
they  may  each  be  considered  as  lost  basins,  although  in  time  of  large 
floods  they  may  contribute  to  the  Lower  Gila. 

The  total  area  of  the  Agua  Fria  Basin  to  Gilette  is  1,420  square 
miles.  The  supply  of  water,  however,  is  not  sufficient  for  all  crops 
under  cultivation,  and  in  very  dry  seasons  some  are  lost.  The  head 
waters  of  this  district  are  in  Yavapai  County,  where  the  principal 
industry  is  grazing,  while  the  great  portion  of  the  arable  land  is  south 
of  this,  in  Maricopa  County.  The  Agua  Fria  rises  in  the  mountains 
southeast  of  Prescott  and  Hows  south  as  a clear  mountain  torrent,  but 
as  it  enters  the  plains  of  the  Gila  the  waters  sink  into  the  broad,  sandy, 
channel.  In  flood  times,  however,  a great  volume  of  muddy  water  is 
poured  through  the  usually  dry  channel,  entering  the  Gila  a short  dis- 
tance below  the  mouth  of  the  Salt  River. 

The  Hassayampa  District  lies  to  the  west  of  the  Agua  Fria,  and, 
like  it,  has  its  headwaters  in  Yavapai  County.  Of  the  total  area  of 
1,810  square  miles  in  this  district,  about  937  square  miles  are  in  this 
county  and  873  square  miles  in  Maricopa  County.  In  the  headwaters 
of  this  basin  was  the  Walnut  Grove  Dam,  whose  destruction  in  February, 
1890,  was  the  cause  of  considerable  loss  of  life  and  property.  On  PI. 
lxxvii  is  given  a view  of  the  reservoir  formed  by  this  dam.  Hassa- 
yampa Creek,  like  the  Agua  Fria,  is  subject  to  violent  freshets,  whose 
waters  reach  the  Gila,  but  at  other  times  the  stream  sinks  into  the  sands. 

THE  SANTA  CRUZ  DISTRICT. 

The  Santa  Cruz  District  lies  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  Gila  Ba- 
sin west  of  the  San  Pedro  District.  The  limits  of  this  district  are  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  define,  on  account  of  the  lack  of  good  maps  of  the 
region.  There  are,  however,  approximately  3,500  square  miles  in  this 
district,  of  which  a small  part  of  the  head  waters  is  in  the  Republic  of 
Mexico  and  the  remainder  in  the  county  of  Pima,  Arizona.  The 
principal  streams  of  this  district  are  the  Santa  Cruz  River  and  its 
tributaries,  the  Sonoita  and  Potrero.  These  creeks  rise  in  the  moun- 
tains of  the  south,  where  the  elevation  is  from  4,000  to  5,000  feet,  and 
join  to  flow  northward  as  the  Santa  Cruz.  The  waters  are  finally  lost 
in  the  sands  not  far  from  Tucson.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  stream, 
among  the  rocky  canyons  and  narrow  valleys,  is  ample  water,  but  in 
the  lower  portion  of  the  stream  there  is,  during  the  dry  season,  an 
amount  insufficient  to  supply  all  the  needs  of  the  present  acreage  under 
cultivation,  of  which  in  all  there  was,  in  1889,  2,G72  acres. 

In  addition  to  the  lost  river  basins  before  mentioned  there  are  in 
the  great  drainage  basin  of  the  Gila  areas  aggregating  33,300  square 
miles,  over  which  the  rainfall  either  does  not  give  rise  to  streams,  or  if  little 


316 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


streams  are  formed,  they  do  not  attain  notable  importance.  Scattered 
through  this  region,  much  of  it  fertile  land,  are  small  localities  where 
water  can  be  brought  from  springs  or  pumped  from  saturated  beds 
below  the  surface  to  irrigate  small  farms  or  gardens  of  stock-raisers. 
On  the  plains  are  many  places  where  there  is  grass  enough  for  herds 
of  cattle  if  only  water  can  be  obtained  sufficient  for  their  needs. 
Deep  wells  have  been  sunk  for  this  purpose,  and  large  tanks  for 
holding  storm  waters  constructed,  and  occasionally  there  is  obtained 
a surplus  of  water,  by  which  a few  plants  are  sustained.  Tins  method 
of  irrigating  will  unquestionably  spread  gradually,  but  there  is  little 
to  require  the  attention  of  others  than  those  locally  interested.  The 
problems  here  are  such  that  each  man  must  solve  his  own  for  himself, 
and  thus  are  in  sharp  distinction  from  the  condition  of  affairs  in  the 
great  districts  above  described,  where  the  action  of  every  man  in  his  use 
of  water  has  its  influence,  though  slight,  upon  the  prosperity  of  others. 

SACRAMENTO  AND  SAN  JOAQUIN  BASINS. 

In  these  basins,  lying  wholly  within  the  State  of  California,  a careful 
examination  of  the  water  supply  was  begun  in  1878  by  the  engineering 
department  of  that  State,  under  the  direction  of  its  engineer,  Mr.  William 
Hammond  Hall.  Hydrographic  measurements  of  an  extensive  char- 
acter were  begun  and  carried  on  successfully  through  several  years, 
and  a large  amount  of  information  bearing  not  only  upon  irrigation, 
but  also  upon  the  improvement  of  rivers,  the  flow  of  mining  detritus, 
and  drainage  of  swamp  lands.  At  that  time  gauging  stations  were 
established,  these  being  in  many  instances  at  or  near  railroad  bridges 
crossing  the  streams,  the  height  of  the  water  being  kept  by  employes 
of  the  railroad. 

Many  of  the  gauges  established  at  that  time  have  been  kept  in  good 
order  and  read  at  regular  intervals  up  to  the  present  time.  Credit  is 
due  to  the  officials,  especially  the  chief  engineer,  of  the  Southern  Pacific 
Company  for  the  continuation  of  these  gauge-height  readings,  whose 
value  in  connection  with  discussions  of  river  flow  is  of  the  highest  order. 

In  1889  Mr.  Hall,  then  supervising  engineer  for  this  Survey,  began  a 
series  of  measurements  on  certain  rivers  on  which  gauging  stations  had 
previously  been  established  by  the  California  State  engineering  de- 
partment and  the  fluctuations  of  whose  waters  had  been  recorded  by 
the  railroad  employes.  The  results,  however,  of  these  last  attempts 
lie  chiefly  in  the  perfection  of  the  methods  to  be  employed  on  such 
streams  and  the  devising  of  an  apparatus  for  gauging  from  the  shore, 
as  described  in  the  preceding  annual  report. 

Briefly  stated,  the  results  of  the  river-gauging  work  of  the  State 
engineering  department  of  California  are  as  follows.  The  field  work 
began  in  June,  1878,  and  during  part  of  that  and  the  succeeding  year 
several  parties  were  engaged  in  making  gaugings  of  rivers  and  canals 
in  connection  with  careful  surveys  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  facts 


library 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 

5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25 


U.  S.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


O 

o 

lO 


3 

o 


8 


8 

as 

CO 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  LXXXIII 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  SAN  JOAQUIN  RIVER  AT  HERNDON,  CALIFORNIA,  1879  TO  1882. 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.] 


CALIFORNIA  GAUGINGS. 


317 


bearing  upon  the  solution  of  the  problems  of  drainage,  river  improve- 
ment, mining  detritus,  and  irrigation.  Gauging  surveys  were  made  of 
the  Sacramento  at  five  places,  viz,  at  Colusa,  at  Butte  Slough,  at 
Knight’s  Landing,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Feather  Kiver,  and  at  the  mouth 
of  the  American  River,  and  also  a survey  of  the  American  River  itself. 

At  the  same  time  a second  party  made  gaugings  of  Kings,  San 
Joaquin,  Fresno,  Chowcliilla,  Mariposa,  Merced,  Kaweah,  and  Tule 
Rivers.  A third  party  examined  the  San  Joaquin  from  the  Stanislaus 
north,  and  a fourth  party  made  gaugings  up  toward  the  headwaters  of 
the  Sacramento,  namely  on  the  Cosumnes,  American,  Bear,  Yuba, 
Feather,  and  intermediate  streams,  as  well  as  on  the  creeks  northward 
to  Chico  Creek;  also  the  Sacramento,  both  at  Tehama  and  in  the  Iron 
Canyon,  above  Red  Bluffs,  and  Stony  Creek,  besides  all  the  other  tribu- 
taries north  of  Stony  and  Chico  Creeks.  Observations  of  river  height 
were  maintained  for  a time  on  all  the  principal  streams.  There  were 
in  all,  during  the  years  1878  and  1879,  ninety-one  gaugings  made  on 
rivers  and  two  hundred  and  forty-three  on  canals,  and  there  were  es- 
tablished six  self- registering  tide  gauges,  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
height  rods  or  udometers  on  rivers  and  fifty-two  on  canals. 

The  gaugings  on  large  rivers  were  made  mainly  by  current  meters, 
but  on  the  small  streams  and  canals  the  discharge  was  computed  by 
means  of  float  observations  or  in  some  instances  by  Kutter’s  formulae. 
In  some  cases  careful  surveys  were  made  at  each  guaging  station  extend- 
ing for  several  miles,  with  cross  sections  every  100  feet,  or  with  less  care 
for  1 or  2 miles  with  cross  sections  at  less  intervals,  down  to  a distance 
of  one-half  mile  and  sections  every  200  feet.  On  the  creeks  and  canals 
the  general  length  of  gauging  survey  was  from  600  to  1,200  feet.  All  the 
rods  and  height  gauges  were  connected  by  leveling,  giving  their  rela- 
tive elevation  and  the  slope  of  the  river  from  place  to  place. 

In  1880  field  work  was  continued,  the  gauging  stations  in  the  San 
Joaquin  were  put  in  repair  and  records  collected;  regaugings  were  also 
made  of  the  Kern  River  and  of  the  canals.  In  Los  Angeles  County  in 
the  summer  thirty  streams  and  ditches  were  gauged,  and  later  in  the 
season  the  discharge  of  eighty-eight  small  streams,  ditches,  artesian 
wells,  etc.,  were  obtained  by  making  one  hundred  and  eighty-three 
gaugings.  At  about  the  same  time  the  low-water  discharge  of  the 
streams  flowing  into  the  San  Bernardino  Valley  was  estimated  by  means 
of  twenty-three  guagings.  This  practically  ended  the  field  operations 
of  the  State  engineering  department  as  far  as  hydrographic  work  was 
concerned. 

From  the  data  obtained  in  the  field  computations  of  discharge  were 
made  for  most  of  the  rivers  mentioned  above,  and  the  results  of  the 
gaugings  and  computations  were  published  in  1886  in  a volume  entitled 
“Physical  Data  and  Statistics  of  California,”  in  which  are  given  for 
each  month  and  season,  from  November,  1878,  to  October,  1885,  the 
maximum,  minimum,  mean,  and  total  discharge  in  second-feet,  together 


318 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


with,  in  most  cases,  the  depth  of  water  drained  and  the  amount  drained 
per  square  mile  from  the  basins  of  the  following-  rivers,  viz : 

Sacramento  River,  at  Collinsville. 

Cosunmes  River,  at  Live  Oak  Suspension  Bridge. 

Dry  Creek,  at  base  of  foothills. 

Mokelumne  River,  at  Lone  Star  Mill  (base  of  foothills). 

Calaveras  River,  at  Bellota. 

Stanislaus  River,  at  Oakdale. 

Tuolumne  River,  at  Modesto. 

Merced  River,  at  Merced  Falls. 

Bear  Creek,  at  base  of  foothills. 

Mariposa  Creek,  at  base  of  foothills. 

Chowcliilla  Creek,  at  base  of  foothills. 

Fresno  Creek,  at  base  of  foothills. 

San  Joaquin  River,  at  Hampton ville. 

Kings  River,  at  Slate  Point  (base  of  foothills). 

Kaweah  River,  at  Wachumna  Hill. 

Tule  Kiver,  at  Porterville. 

Deer  Creek,  at  base  of  foothills. 

White  Creek,  at  base  of  foothills. 

Poso  Creek,  at  base  of  foothills. 

Kern  River,  at  Rio  Bravo  Ranch. 

Oaliente  Creek,  at  base  of  foothills. 

The  information  obtained  from  the  State  engineering  department  of 
California  and  from  the  Southern  Pacific  Company  relating  to  the  gauge 
height  and  discharge  of  the  rivers  in  this  basin  is  presented  herewith 
on  Pis.  lxxx  to  lxxxviii,  in  order  to  afford  an  opportunity  of  compar- 
ing the  behavior  of  these  streams  with  those  in  other  parts  of  the  arid 
region.  These  plates  are  arranged  in  geographic  order,  following  the 
rule  elsewhere  laid  down  of  taking  the  tributary  streams  in  succession 
from  the  headwaters  to  the  mouth.  The  headwaters  of  the  San  Joa- 
quin, being  nearest  the  Colorado  Basin,  are  first  presented. 

In  the  cases  of  many  important  streams,  the  height  of  whose  waters 
has  been  recorded  for  a series  of  years,  the  relation  between  the  dis- 
charge and  height  has  not  as  yet  been  obtained.  Although  our 
knowledge  would  be  far  more  complete  if  the  daily  discharge  were 
known,  yet  the  range  of  height  of  the  river  for  a long  period  gives  many 
facts  of  importance  and  is  of  sufficient  value  to  justify  the  representation 
of  these  fluctuations.  The  curve  of  average  height  for  all  the  years 
during  which  gauge  readings  were  made  is  placed  on  these  diagrams. 
This  may  be  considered  the  normal  curve  for  the  river,  and  when  placed 
in  connection  with  the  actual  fluctuations  of  the  stream  each  year,  the 
abnormal  variations  of  that  year  are  at  once  apparent.  In  looking 
over  these  plates  it  will  be  seen,  for  example,  that  on  some  years  the 
height  remains  persistently  below  the  normal,  while  on  others  it  is 
above,  and  still  on  others  varies  widely  in  both  directions.  As  a matter 
of  course  no  year  follows  exactly  the  normal  or  average  curve. 


library 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY'  OK  ILLINOIS 


U.  S.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


GAUGE  HEIGHT  OF  THE  SAN  JOAQUIN  RIV 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  LXXXIV 


12  feet. 

9 feet. 

6 feet. 

3 feet. 

12  feet. 

9 feet. 

6 feet. 

3 feet. 

12  feet. 

9 feet. 

G feet. 

3 feet. 

12  feet. 

9 feet. 

6 feet. 

3 feet. 

12  feet. 

9 feet. 

6 feet. 

3 feet. 

12  feet. 

9 feet. 

G feet. 

3 feet. 


HERNDON,  CALIFORNIA,  1880  TO  1891. 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.] 


UPPER  TRIBUTARIES  OF  SAN  JOAQUIN. 


319 


KERN  RIVER. 

Kern  River  is  the  largest  stream  in  the  southern  end  of  the  San  Joa- 
quin Valley,  draining  a large  area  in  the  mountains  west  of  the  main 
range  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  This  stream  has  been  gauged  at  the  Rio 
Bravo  Ranch,  just  below  the  point  where  the  river  leaves  the  canyons 
and  above  the  irrigating  canals,  this  locality  being  about  12  miles  from 
Bakersfield.  The  record  of  river  heights  was  kept  for  1879, 1880, 1881, 
and  1882,  and  daily  mean  discharges,  shown  graphically  on  PI.  lxxx, 
were  computed  for  these  years.  By  referring  to  this  plate  the  wide 
range  in  annual  discharge  is  seen,  and  also  the  characteristic  irregular 
fluctuations. 

In  1879  there  was  apparently  no  spring  flood,  but  in  place  of  this 
almost  continuous  low  water,  broken  only  by  slight  fluctuation,  as  rep- 
resented on  the  diagram  by  the  dotted  line.  In  1880,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  discharge,  shown  by  the  flue  black  line,  reached  the  maximum  ot 
4,070  second-feet  in  June,  and  the  flood  as  a whole  was  large  and  per- 
sistent, being  preceded  by  a sharp  rise  on  April  3 and  extending  to 
the  end  of  July.  The  high  water  of  1880  continues  into  1881,  as  shown 
by  the  line  consisting  of  dots  and  dashes.  This  flood,  however,  did  not 
reach  the  height  of  that  of  the  previous  year,  but  attained  its  maximum 
early  in  May,  and  then  with  minor  fluctuations  fell  rapidly  through 
June  and  July. 

In  1882  the  discharge,  as  indicated  by  the  heavy  black  line,  was  in- 
termediate between  those  of  previous  years,  coinciding  in  winter  and 
late  summer  fairly  well  with  the  discharges  of  1879  and  1880.  In  addi- 
tion to  these,  the  mean  discharges  for  1883  and  1884  have  been  pub- 
lished in  the  Physical  Data  and  Statistics  of  California,  having  been 
computed  by  using  the  rainfall  measurements  of  these  years  as  a basis 
and  assuming  a certain  relation  between  these  and  the  river  flow. 

TULE  RIVER. 

The  drainage  area  of  tliis  river  lies  west  of  the  head  waters  of  the 
Kern,  the  main  stream  flowing  directly  westward  and  emptying  in  time 
of  floods  into  Tulare  Lake.  At  other  times  the  water  is  all  used  for 


Fig.  227.— Diagram  of  daily  gauge  height  of  the  Tule  River,  California. 

purposes  of  irrigation  from  Porterville  to  Tipton.  Measurements  were 
made  about  5 miles  above  Porterville,  but  below  the  head  of  the  Pioneer 
Canal.  The  gauge  height  only  for  this  stream  is  shown  on  Fig.  227,  for 


320 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


the  greater  part  of  1879  and  the  spring  of  1880.  This  fragmentary 
record  serves  to  give  in  a general  way  the  character  of  the  stream 
during  those  years.  In  the  early  part  of  1879  the  water,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Kern  River,  was  extremely  low,  and  the  flood  rise  is  scarcely 
apparent.  At  the  beginning  of  the  succeeding  winter,  however,  the 
water  began  to  rise  and  continued  until  April,  when  there  was  a slight 
fall,  succeeded  in  the  latter  part  of  May  by  a sudden  flood,  the  effect  of 
this  flood  being  felt  far  into  the  summer. 

The  mean  monthly  discharge  of  this  river  for  these  and  the  succeeding 
years  up  to  and  including  1884  has  been  published,1  and  also  the  mean 
discharges  for  the  same  period  of  the  adjoining  creeks,  the  Deer, 
White,  and  Poso. 

KAWEAH  RIVER. 

The  Kaweah  drainage  area  lies  between  that  of  Tule  River  and  of 
Kings  River.  The  river  enters  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  northeast  of 
Tulare  Lake  and  furnishes  water  for  large  areas  in  the  vicinity  of 
Visalia.  Discharge  measurments  were  made  principally  in  the  vicinity 
of  Three  Rivers,  being  thus  in  the  mountains  above  some  of  the  smaller 
tributaries.  The  discharges  for  1879,  parts  of  1880,  1881,  and  1882  are 
shown  on  PI.  lxxxi. 

The  discharge  for  1879,  as  in  the  case  of  the  rivers  above  mentioned, 
was  very  small,  but  in  1880  heavy  floods  occurred,  some  of  which,  as 
for  example  that  of  April  20,  were  of  unusual  violence.  The  record  from 
July  1,  1880,  to  June  30,  1881,  has  not  been  preserved,  but  the  fall  and 
winter  of  1881  are  shown  and  the  spring  of  1882,  the  discharge  for  this 
latter  period  being  indicated  by  a heavy  black  line. 

KINGS  RIVER. 

The  State  engineers  found  this  important  river  exceedingly  difficult 
to  measure,  on  account  of  the  shifting  character  of  its  bed  and  banks  or 
of  other  obstacles.  Gaugings,  however,  were  made  by  them  at  various 
points,  by  means  of  which  they  were  enabled  to  make  computations  of 
the  discharges  from  1879  to  1884,  inclusive.  One  of  the  most  important 
factors  in  this  computation  was  the  record  of  gauge  height  kept  at  the 
Southern  Pacific  Company’s  bridge  near  Kingsburg.  This  record, 
which  has  been  maintained  up  to  the  present  time,  is  given  on  PI.  lxxxii, 
in  connection  with  the  curve  of  average  river  height  for  the  entire 
period. 

This  diagram  exhibits  the  relative  height  of  tbe  river  in  each  year 
and  the  time  of  occurrence  and  extent  of  the  floods,  as,  for  instance,  in 
the  years  1880  and  1881  the  water  in  general  was  above  the  average, 
while  in  1882  and  1883  the  spring  floods  did  not  reach  their  usual  height. 
In  1884  the  flood  was  large,  and  especially  notable  from  the  fact  that 

1 Physical  data  and  statistics  of  California,  collected  and  compiled  by  the  State  engineering  depart- 
ment of  California,  William  Ham.  Hall,  State  engineer,  Sacramento,  State  printing  office,  1886,  pp, 
459  460 . 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  MERCED  RIVER  AT  CENTRAL  PACIFIC  RAILROAD  BRIDGE,  CALIFORNIA,  1879  TO  1882. 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 


library 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  Of  ILLINOIS 


NEWELL.] 


GAUGINGS  OF  SAN  JOAQUIN. 


321 


it  occurred  late  in  the  season,  a great  part  coining  in  July.  During 
the  year  following  the  water  remained  low,  and  in  1886  was  a trifle 
above  the  normal.  The  years  1887,  1888,  and  1889  were  similar  in 
character  as  regards  the  small  size  of  the  floods,  while  1890  rivaled 
1884  for  the  extent  of  high  water. 

SAN  JOAQUIN  RIVER. 

The  San  Joaquin  was  gauged  both  at  the  edge  of  the  valley  and  at 
the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  crossing,  near  Sycamore,  now  Herndon, 
the  record  at  this  lower  point,  however,  being  the  most  extended,  hav- 
ing been  kept  by  the  Southern  Pacific  Company  continuously  to  the 
present  year.  The  discharge  for  this  place  for  the  years  1879,  1880, 
1881,  and  1882  is  shown  on  PI.  lxxxiii.  On  account  of  the  peculiar 
irregular  character  of  these  discharges,  they  are  represented  in  two 
groups,  1879  and  1880  being  placed  together,  and  also  1881  and  1882  by 
themselves,  since  the  lines  for  these  last  two  years  would  fall  inter- 
mediate between  those  for  the  preceding  two  years. 

Low  water  for  1879  and  high  floods  in  1880  are  shown  to  have 
characterized  this  river  as  well  as  those  farther  south.  The  sudden 
flood  of  February  1, 1881,  almost  equaling  those  of  May  and  June  of 
the  preceding  year,  is  notable  as  showing  the  irregularity  in  time  of 
these  freshets.  It  is  interesting  to  compare  these  lines  with  those  repre- 
sen ting  the  discharges  of  rivers  in  Colorado,  Utah,  and  Montana,  where 
the  floods  are  more  gradual  and  do  not  as  a rule  occur  with  such  vio- 
lence. It  is  to  be  noted  that  these  sharp  irregular  fluctuations  are  due 
to  changes  of  temperature'  rather  than  to  rainfall,  most  of  the  floods 
being  caused  by  the  melting  of  the  snow  among  the  mountain  summits, 
the  effect  of  the  flood  being  of  course  intensified  by  warm  rains,  if  these 
occur. 

The  mean  monthly  discharge  for  these  years  and  for  1883  and  1884 
lias  been  computed  by  the  California  engineers,  and  could  probably 
be  estimated  up  to  the  present  time  from  the  gauge  readings  kept  at 
Herndon.  The  gauge  heights  themselves  are,  however,  given  on  PI. 
lxxxiv  for  direct  comparison  among  themselves.  The  heavy  flood  of 
1880  is  apparent  by  the  position  of  the  black  line  above  the  dotted,  and 
the  smaller  floods  of  1881  and  1882  can  also  be  seen.  In  1884  the  flood 
was  the  greatest  recorded  both  in  amount  and  duration,  as  was  the  case 
in  the  Colorado  basin,  as  previously  noted.  The  year  1885  was  noted 
by  the  continuance  of  the  river  height  for  long  periods  below  the  normal, 
and  1886  by  an  equal  persistency  above  the  normal.  In  1887,  1888, 
and  1889  the  river  continued  at  low  stages,  but  in  1890  rose  again  to 
heights  unknown  since  1884,  falling  off  in  the  winter,  the  beginning  of 
1891  being  marked  by  unusually  low  water. 

By  comparing  diagrams  of  discharge  for  1880,  1881,  and  1882  with 
those  of  gauge  height  for  the  same  period,  the  difference  between  these 
two  classes  of  graphic  illustrations  is  apparent.  As  the  water  rises  a 
12  geol.,  pt.  2 21 


322 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


16  ft. 
14  ft. 
12  ft. 
10  ft. 
8 ft. 
6 ft. 
4 ft. 
2 ft. 

16  ft. 
14  ft. 
12  ft. 
10  ft. 
8 ft. 
6 ft. 
4 ft. 
2 ft. 


greater  and  greater  amount  flows  in  tlie  stream  for  every  increase  in 
height.  The  diagram  of  discharge  is  so  drawn  that  the  vertical  spaces 
represent  equal  quantities  of  water,  while  in  the  gauge  height  diagrams 
the  vertical  distances  represent  heights  of  water  without  regard  to 
quantity.  Thus  the  two  diagrams  show  the  same  fluctuations  on  the 
same  days.  The  lower  parts  of  both  diagrams  are  very  nearly  alike, 
since  at  low  stages  the  discharge  increases  very  nearly  with  the  addi- 
tional height,  but  the  upper  part  of  the  discharge  diagram  in  compari- 
son with  that  of  gauge  height  appears  as  though  stretched  out  in  a 
vertical  direction,  from  the  fact  that  the  quantity  discharged  at  the 
high  stages  is  increasing  rapidly. 

MERCED  RIVER. 

The  discharges  for  this  river  at  the  gauging  station  near  the  railroad 
bridge  between  Delhi  and  Livingston  are  given  on  PI.  lxxxv  for  the 
years  1879,  1880,  1881,  and  1882.  As  shown  by  the  diagram,  these  dis- 
charges show  great  irregularities,  but  during  May  fall  within  a com- 
paratively small  range.  The  early  floods  of  the  year  are  particularly 
noticeable  for  their  intensity,  as,  for  instance,  that  of  1881. 

TUOLUMNE  RIVER. 

The  Tuolumne  is  one  of  the  most  important  rivers  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  It  flows  nearly  due  west  from  the 


16  ft. 
14  ft. 
12  ft. 
10  ft. 
8 ft. 
6 ft. 
4 ft. 
2 ft. 


16  ft. 
14  ft. 
12  ft. 
10  ft. 
8 ft. 
6 ft. 
4 ft. 
2 ft. 


Sierra  Nevada,  the  waters  being  used  for  irrigation  in  the  viciuity  of 
Modesto.  The  gaugiugs  of  this  river  were  made  near  the  railroad  bridge 


Fig.  228.— Diagram  of  the  daily  gauge  height  of  the  Tuolumne  River,  California,  1890  and  1891. 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 

5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  30  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25 


U.  S.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  LXXXVI 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  TUOLUMNE  RIVER  AT  MODESTO,  CALIFORNIA,  1879  TO  1882. 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 

10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25 


U.  S.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  LXXXVII 


§©  © O O © O 

I § 8 8 8 1 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  MOKELUMNE  RIVER  AT  MAGEE’S  MILL,  CALIFORNIA.  1879  TO  1882. 


12  feet. 

9 feet. 

6 feet. 

3 feet. 

12  feet. 

9 feet. 

G feet. 

3 feet. 

12  feet. 

9 feet. 

G feet. 

3 feet. 

12  feet. 

9 feet. 

6 feet. 

3 feet 

12  feet 

9 feet. 

G feet. 

3 feet. 

12  feet. 
9 feet. 

6 feet 

3 feet 


U.  S.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


GAUGE  HEIGHT  OF  THE  LOWER  SAN  JOAQUIN  RIVER  AT  ( 


feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 


?AL  PACIFIC  RAILROAD  BRIDGE,  CALIFORNIA,  1880  TO  1891 


of 


NEWELL.] 


LOWER  SAN  JOAQUIN  DRAINAGE. 


323 


south  of  the  town,  the  record  being  kept  for  many  years  by  the  railroad 
company.  The  discharges  are  shown  on  PI.  lxxxvi,  those  for  1879  and 
1880  on  the  upper  half  of  the  page,  and  for  1881  and  1882  on  the  lower 
half.  The  discharges  of  these  years  show  the  characteristic  fluctuations, 
1879  being  low,  1880  high,  and  1881  and  1882  in  general  intermediate. 

The  daily  gauge  height  of  this  river  for  1890,  and  a part  of  1891,  is 
shown  on  Fig.  228,  the  discharges  not  having  been  computed.  This 
serves,  however,  to  show  the  relative  fluctuations  during  the  various 
months  of  these  years  and  the  irregularity  iu  the  character  of  the  stream. 

MOKELUMNE  RIVER. 

The  Mokelumne  River  enters  the  Sacramento  Valley  at  about  one- 
tliird  of  the  distance  from  Stockton  to  Sacramento.  It  is  considered  a 
tributary  of  the  Sau  Joaquin,  for  although  flowing  toward  the  Sac- 
ramento, when  within  about  2 miles  of  that  river  its  waters  turn 
abruptly  toward  the  south.  The  flow  was  measured  on  the  edge  of  the 
valley  above  Clements,  giving  the  discharges  shown  on  PI.  lxxxvii. 
In  this  case,  as  in  that  of  previous  rivers,  1879  and  1880  are  shown  to- 
gether on  the  upper  half  of  the  page,  and  1881  and  1882  on  the  lower 
half.  The  difference  in  discharge  between  1879  and  1880  is  not  as 
strongly  marked  as  in  the  case  of  the  rivers  farther  south,  and  when 
the  discharges  for  the  four  years  are  plotted  on  the  same  sheet  the  re- 
sult is  a confused  mass  iu  which  no  one  year  is  particularly  prominent 
for  the  quantity  of  its  discharge. 

The  excessive  floods  of  early  spring,  as  in  1879  and  particularly  in 
1881,  are  the  most  noticeable  features  of  these  diagrams.  The  rapid 
fluctuations  in  quantity,  so  characteristic  of  the  streams  of  this  basin, 
are  exhibited  on  this  river.  The  culmination  of  the  floods  in  the  latter 
part  of  May  and  their  gradual  decline  in  June  is  clearly  shown. 

LOWER  SAN  JOAQUIN  RIVER. 

The  height  of  the  San  Joaquin  has  been  observed  for  a number  of 
years  by  the  Southern  Pacific  Company  at  its  bridge.  These  daily 
gauge  heights  have  been  plotted,  and  are  shown  in  condensed  form  on 
PI.  lxxxviii,  giving  the  fluctuations  in  height  from  1880  to  the  present 
time.  The  average  height  of  the  river  for  each  day  in  the  year  during 
the  series  of  years  through  which  observations  were  made  is  indicated 
by  the  dotted  line,  the  irregular  line  showing  the  daily  variations  in 
each  year  from  this  average.  In  examining  these  in  detail  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  flood  of  1884  is,  as  in  other  cases,  far  above  the  normal. 

In  the  diagram  for  1886,  at  the  top  of  the  plate  the  discharges  for 
floods  in  January  and  May,  are  so  great  as  to  bring  the  line  above  the 
upper  margin  of  the  plate.  The  amount  by  which  this  line  overruns  is 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines  immediately  below  these  places.  In  1887, 
1888,  and  1889,  the  height  is  in  general  below  the  average,  but  in  the 
fall  of  the  latter  year  the  water  rose  suddenly  and  continued  at  an  un- 


324 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


precedented  height  during  that  winter,  the  volume  during  each  month 
almost  equaling  that  of  the  Hood  discharge  of  May  or  June.  This  great 
flood  continued  through  July,  and  then  declined,  reaching  the  normal 
at  the  end  of  the  year,  the  beginning  of  1891  being  marked  by  low  water. 

THE  GREAT  BASIN. 

This  term  is  applied  to  that  vast  extent  of  country  lying  between  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  embracing  an  area  of 
228,150  square  miles,  from  which  no  water  escapes  to  the  ocean.  The 
rain  which  falls  within  this  area  collects  in  the  streams,  and  these  in 
turn  unite,  forming  large  rivers  in  certain  parts  of  the  basin ; but  in  spite 
of  their  size  they  are  destined  sooner  or  later  to  disappear,  either  by 
evaporation  from  their  broad  sandy  channels  or  from  the  surface  of 
some  saline  lake.  The  larger  rivers  are  on  the  extreme  eastern  or  west- 
ern sides  of  this  basin,  for  it  is  here  only  that  lofty  and  continuous 
ranges  of  mountains  are  found.  On  the  north  the  divide  between  the 
drainage  of  the  Columbia  is  not  sharply  defined  by  great  mountains, 
nor  is  it  on  the  south  adjoining  the  Colorado. 

Stream  measurements  have  been  made  by  the  Geological  Survey  on 
the  principal  streams  on  both  sides  of  the  Great  Basin.  On  the  west- 
ern edge  the  Truckee,  the  principal  river  of  the  Pyramid  Lake  drainage 
basin,  lias  been  measured  in  several  places,  and  also  the  Carson,  whose 
waters  disappear  in  Carson  Sink.  On  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Great 
Basin,  in  the  Salt  Lake  Basin,  measurements  have  been  of  the  principal 
streams,  the  Bear,  Weber,  Provo,  and  others,  and  in  the  Sevier  Basin 
of  the  Sevier  River  mainly  at  the  point  where  it  enters  the  Sevier 
Desert.  The  results  of  these  measurements  are  given  in  the  following 
pages  in  the  order  stated.  The  gauging  stations  have  been  described 
in  the  preceding  annual  report  of  this  Survey.  In  the  case  of  the  Bear 
and  Sevier  rivers  a somewhat  detailed  description  of  the  topography 
is  given,  in  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  questions  of  water  supply  and  irri- 
gation. ’ 

TRUCKEE  RIVER. 

On  PI.  lxxxix  is  shown  the  discharge  for  the  greater  part  of  1890  of 
Prosser  Creek,  the  Little  Truckee,  and  the  Truckee  below  Boca,  Cali- 
fornia. Prosser  Creek  and  the  Little  Truckee  flow  into  the  Truckee  a 
short  distance  above  this  town,  and  consequently  the  discharge  below 
Boca  includes  that  of  these  two  streams.  As  might  be  expected,  these 
discharges  follow  each  other  closely,  since,  the  drainage  basins  being 
small,  similar  climatic  conditions  prevail  over  all. 

Measurements  were  made  of  the  Truckee  at  two  points  farther  down 
the  river — one  at  Laughtons,  about  <i  miles  above  Reno,  and  the  other  at 
Vista  railroad  station,  about  8 miles  below  Reno,  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  Truckee  meadows.  The  discharge  at  these  two  points  follow  each 
other  so  closely  that  a single  illustration  is  sufficient.  PI.  xc  shows 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  PROSSER  CREEK.  LITTLE  TRUCKEE,  AND  TRUCKEE  AT  BOCA,  CALIFORNIA. 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  LXXXIX 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  TRUCKEE  RIVER  AT  VISTA,  NEVADA. 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  CARSON  RIVER  NEAR  EMPIRE,  NEVADA,  AND  EAST  AND  WEST  FORKS  OF  THE  CARSON. 


NEWELL.] 


STREAMS  OF  THE  GREAT  BASIN. 


325 


tlie  quantity  of  water  discharged  during  all  but  the  early  months  of 
1890,  and  by  comparing  this  with  PL  lxxxix  the  similarity  is  shown 
between  the  behavior  of  the  river  at  Boca  and  at  Vista. 

CARSON  RIVER. 

The  discharge  of  the  main  Carson,  5 miles  east  of  Carson  City,  near 
Empire,  Nevada,  for  1890,  is  shown  on  PL  xoi,  in  connection  with  the 
discharges  of  the  East  and  West  forks.  The  station  at  Empire  was 
abandoned  in  the  fall  of  1890,  but  daily  readings  of  gauge  height  for 
the  East  and  West  forks  have  been  received  to  June,  1891,  thus  allow- 
ing computations  of  discharges  to  be  made  up  to  that  time.  In  this 
diagram  the  large  amount  of  water  received  from  the  East  Fork  is  a 
prominent  feature,  the  discharge  of  the  West  Fork  being  relatively 
small.  It  is  apparent  from  the  diagram  that  the  discharge  of  the  main 
river  is  in  many  cases,  especially  in  the  latter  part  of  August  and  in 
September,  less  than  the  total  of  the  two  forks,  this  being  due  to  the 
large  diversions  of  water  for  irrigation  made  from  these  streams  in  the 
valleys  through  which  they  flow. 

SALT  LAKE  BASIN. 

BEAR  RIVER. 

The  headwaters  of  this  river,  as  shown  by  the  map  (PL  xcii),  are  in 
the  high  peaks  about  (30  miles  east  of  Salt  Lake  City.  Here,  at  an  ele- 
vation of  from  9,000  to  11,000  feet,  are  small  glacial  lakes  and  basins 
which  originally  held  a large  amount  of  water,  but  by  erosion  the  lower 
rims  have  been  cut,  allowing  this  water  to  escape.  The  torrential 
streams  from  these  glacial  lakes  flow  down  the  highly  inclined  slopes, 
and  unite  in  the  deep,  narrow  valleys  at  the  foot  of  the  peaks.  Most 
of  these  valleys  consist  of  alternations  of  narrow  passes  and  broader 
meadow  lands,  where  the  streams  become  almost  stagnant  and  meander 
through  small  marshes.  At  the  lower  end  of  each  of  these  open  spaces 
a dam  could  be  built  at  small  expense,  all  the  materials  being  close  at 
hand,  making  ponds  from  a quarter  to  a half  mile  in  width  and  1 mile 
or  even  more  in  length.  These  valleys  have  all  the  advantages  of  reser- 
voir sites,  the  only  objections  to  their  use  being  the  great  distance 
which  the  stored  water  must  travel  before  reaching  altitudes  sufficiently 
low  to  mature  the  more  valuable  crops. 

The  water  flowing  northward  from  these  valleys  crosses  the  line  be- 
tween Utah  and  Wyoming  and  entering  the  latter  State  continues 
in  the  same  general  northerly  direction,  passing  through  rolling  pasture 
lands.  These  lands  are  too  high  for  agriculture,  but  are  adapted  to 
grazing,  and  along  the  course  of  the  streams  are  many  ranches  at  which 
forage  is  raised  as  winter  feed  for  cattle.  Diversions  of  the  waters  of 
the  Upper  Bear  and  its  tributaries  are  made  at  intervals  in  this  high 
country,  but  the  ditches  are  small.  At  Evanston,  however,  several 


326 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


canals  of  notable  size  take  water  from  the  Bear  River  to  supply  the 
town  and  adjacent  hay  lands. 

Northward  from  Evanston,  in  Wyoming,  the  valley  continues  open, 
the  stream  falls  rapidly,  and  at  short  intervals  ditches  are  taken  out, 
the  water  being-  used  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  raising  hay.  Most  of 
the  tributaries  which  enter  the  Bear  in  this  portion  of  its  course  have 
large  drainage  areas,  but  these  consist  for  the  greater  part  of  gently 
rolling  hills,  and  do  not  in  ordinary  seasons  contribute  perennial  streams. 
The  snow  which  falls  upon  these  hills  evaporates  to  a large  extent  with- 
out melting,  there  being  few  gulches  or  ravines  into  which  it  can  drift 
and  pack.  The  rainfall  also  upon  these  gentle  slopes  does  not  usually 
gather  into  large  streams.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  case  of  excep- 
tional storms,  coming  with  such  rapidity  that  they  can  not  saturate  the 
ground,  large  bodies  of  rain  water  flood  these  rolling  lands  and  cause 
torrents  in  the  ravines.  Thus  it  is  that  the  water  supply  of  this  high 
land,  while  in  general  larger  than  that  of  the  and  region,  is  not  avail- 
able for  the  needs  of  agriculture  in  the  regions  below. 

From  Evanston  northward  the  river  passes  through  a valley  which 
narrows  in  places  and  finally  turns  abruptly  to  the  west.  Near  this 
locality  is  a site  suitable  for  a reservoir;  also  at  the  junction  with  Salt 
Creek  is  another  small  reservoir  site,  having  an  average  width  of  a 
quarter  of  a mile  and  a length  of  nearly  1 mile.  From  the  mouth  of 
Salt  Creek  the  river  runs  almost  due  west  for  7 miles,  the  first  2 miles 
being  through  a narrow  canyon,  which  opens  into  a valley  three-quarters 
of  a mile  in  width.  Here  the  river  crosses  the  line  from  Wyoming  into 
Utah.  The  valley  continues  open  to  and  below  the  town  of  Woodruff, 
at  which  point  the  open  land  is  about  a mile  and  a half  in  width.  The 
river  then  turns  almost  due  north,  continuing  for  about  25  miles  in  the 
Territory  of  Utah. 

This  valley,  from  Woodruff  northward,  continues  to  widen,  until  at 
Randolph  it  is  nearly  3 miles  from  side  to  side.  At  the  mouth  of  Sale- 
ratus  Creek,  which  enters  above  Woodruff,  is  a wide  valley,  varying  in 
width  from  11  to  3 miles,  and  upon  which  water  is  now  taken  to  a small 
extent  from  the  Bear  River,  the  head  works  of  this  canal  being  in 
Wyoming.  Near  the  mouth  of  Saleratus  Creek  the  Randolph  Canal, 
reported  to  be  16  feet  in  bottom  width,  is  diverted,  and  follows  along 
the  west  side  of  the  valley.  Below  Randolph  the  river  flows  slightly 
to  the  east  again.  The  valley  continues  nearly  3 miles  in  width,  with 
wide  meadow  lands,  then  narrows  to  a width  of  about  a mile  and  a half. 
Continuing  northwardly  and  crossing  into  Wyoming,  it  widens  out  to 
from  31  to  4 miles.  At  this  point  are  great  ranches,  some  of  the  finest 
grazing  lands  of  the  State  of  Wyoming  being  at  this  locality,  one 
ranch  in  particular  extending  about  8 miles  along  the  river. 

This  portion  of  the  river  in  Wyoming  flows  in  a valley  from  1 to  3 
miles  wide,  with  the  same  rich  bottoms  along  its  course.  At  intervals 
ditches  divert  water  to  cover  the  lower  bench-lands  on  which  hay 


U S. GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT.  PART  II . PL . XCII. 


DRAINAGE  BASIN  OF  THE  BEAR  RIVER 


NEWELL.] 


HEADWATERS  OF  BEAR  RIVER. 


327 


and  other  forage  plants  are  raised.  Near  the  mouth  of  Smith  Fork 
the  valley  narrows  on  the  west,  and  the  bench  lands  almost  if  not  quite 
disappear.  A gauging  of  Bear  River  was  made  above  the  mouth  of 
Smith  Fork  by  Henry  Gannett  on  August  24,  1877,  and  the  stream  was 
found  to  carry  but  112  second-feet.  The  preceding  season  had  been 
unusually  dry  and  the  discharge  was  probably  less  than  the  average 
for  that  season.1 * *  On  Smith  Fork,  which  has  a drainage  area  of  314 
miles,  are  several  favorable  reservoir  sites,  covering  from  100  to  250 
acres,  and  located  25  miles  or  more  above  the  mouth,  but  there  is  little 
agricultural  land  along  this  stream  and  few  ranches.  The  discharge 
of  this  fork  in  the  fall  of  1886  was  estimated  to  be  about  200  second- 
feet. 

At  the  head  of  Smith  Fork  is  a natural  reservoir,  known  on  the 
maps  as  Lake  Alice,  formed  by  a mass  of  loose  material  which  has  slid 
from  the  mountain  into  a narrow  gorge,  blocking  the  outlet  of  a long, 
narrow  valley.  This  natural  dam  has  made  a lake  nearly  2 miles  in 
length  by  a quarter  of  a mile  in  width  at  the  widest  point,  the  water 
slowly  escaping  by  percolation  through  the  mass  of  loose  material. 

Below  Smith  Fork  the  first  important  tributary  of  the  Bear  is  Thomas 
Fork,  which  flows  southward  along  the  line  between  Wyoming  and 
Idaho,  the  mouth  of  this  fork  being  in  the  latter  State.  The  valley  of 
Thomas  Fork  is  but  about  2 miles  wide,  and  contains  a large  area  of 
fine  agricultural  land,  with  but  little  water,  the  conditions  here  being 
the  reverse  of  those  prevailing  on  Smith  Fork.  Along  the  latter  is 
little  agricultural  land,  but  an  abundance  of  water,  while  along  the 
Thomas  Fork  there  is  an  abundance  of  land  and  a scarcity  of  water. 
It  has  been  proposed  to  take  water  from  Smith  Fork  and  carry  it 
around  the  point  of  the  mountain  into  Thomas  Fork  A7 alley.  A canal 
of  a bottom  width  of  12  feet  has  already  been  begun. 

From  the  mouth  of  Thomas  Fork  Bear  River  runs  southwesterly  and 
then  northwesterly,  passing  through  the  range  of  low  hills  which  bound 
Bear  Lake  on  the  east.  In  this  portion  of  the  river  are  many  small 
areas  of  meadow  land  from  a quarter  to  a half  mile  in  width.  A ditch 
is  taken  out,  covering  a wide  strip  of  meadow  on  which  hay  is  raised, 
and  several  others  are  projected  to  take  water  from  the  river  upon  land 
above  the  town  of  Montpelier. 


BEAR  LAKE. 

The  Bear  River,  emerging  from  the  boundary  hills  between  Wyoming 
and  Idaho,  enters  the  Bear  Lake  Valley  at  an  elevation  of  about  5,800 
feet.  In  the  northern  end  is  Bear  Lake,  a beautiful  sheet  of  water  20 
miles  in  length  by  7 in  width,  surrounded  on  all  sides  except  the  north 

1 See  Report  of  Henry  Gannett,  topographer,  p.  697.  in  the  Eleventh  Annual  Report  of  the  'O'.  S.  Geo- 

logical and  Geographical  Survey  of  the  Territories,  embracing  Idaho  and  Wyoming,  being  a report  of 

progress  of  the  exploration  for  the  year  1877.  F.  V.  Hayden,  Washington,  1879,  720  pp. 


328 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


by  ranges  of  steep  hills.  On  the  north  end  of  this  lake  is  the  great 
marsh  or  slough  which  is  indicated  on  the  Land  Office  maps  as  the 
Upper  Lake.  In  the  fall  of  1889,  when  visited,  there  had  been  a suc- 
cession of  dry  seasons  and  the  marsh  had  almost  entirely  disappeared, 
only  a small  area  of  open  water  at  the  south  end,  adjoining  the  lake, 
being  left.  In  other  portions  of  the  marsh  the  ground  was  perfectly 
hard ; roads  crossed  it  in  various  directions ; the  greater  portion  of  the 
area  was  covered  with  hay  ranches,  and  dotted  here  and  there  by  houses 
and  hay  stacks.  Although  the  inhabitants  of  the  valley  can  not  enter 
and  patent  this  land  because  of  the  fact  of  the  official  designation  as  a 
lake,  yet  they  have  made  entries  on  the  county  records  which  are  con- 
sidered among  themselves  as  binding.  North  of  the  marsh  the  valley 
continues  nearly  level  for  some  miles,  then  the  rolling  hills  on  either  side 
gradually  close  in  and  the  river  again  enters  narrow  defiles. 

Bear  Biver  does  not  flow  directly  into  Bear  Lake,  but  in  times  of 
high  water  floods  the  marsh,  and  from  thence  the  water  backs  into 
the  lake.  In  time  of  drought  the  water  in  turn  flows  from  the  lake 
into  the  marsh,  and  in  many  tortuous  channels  finally  enters  the 
lower  portion  of  the  river  at  the  north  end  of  the  valley.  There  is 
no  well  defined  passage  through  the  marsh,  the  river  where  it  enters 
dividing  into  channels  and,  spreading  through  this  low  land,  finally 
converges  upon  its  lower  reaches.  The  lake  and  marsh  thus  have 
a modifying  effect  upon  the  regime  of  the  river,  cutting  it  into 
two  portions,  the  Upper  Bear  Biver,  above  Bear  Lake  Valley,  and  the 
Lower  Bear,  below  that  point,  the  action  of  the  upper  river  being  felt 
only  indirectly  in  the  lower. 

Bear  Lake  lies  across  the  boundary  between  Utah  and  Idaho,  the 
most  southerly  portion  of  the  lake  being  in  Utah,  the  northern  in 
Idaho.  On  the  south  and  east  of  the  lake  are  strips  of  fertile  land 
already  populated  by  a community  of  farmers  and  fishermen.  To  the 
north  in  the  broad  valleys  are  many  towns,  some  of  which  are  of  con- 
siderable size,  depending  for  their  prosperity  upon  the  agricultural  re- 
sources of  that  region.  The  elevation  is  too  great  for  many  of  the  crops 
that  are  grown  in  the  valley  of  Salt  Lake,  frosts  occurring  in  August 
and  even  in  the  latter  part  of  July.  The  lands  both  along  the  lake  and 
north  of  it  are  irrigated  by  canals  taken  from  the  streams  which  flow 
into  Bear  Lake  Valley,  principally  from  the  mountains  on  the  west. 
All  of  the  ordinary  flow  of  these  streams  is  utilized,  and  the  seepage 
water  alone,  excepting  in  times  of  flood,  escapes  into  the  lake  and  marsh 
at  the  north.  Very  little  water  is  taken  from  Bear  Biver  itself.  There 
are,  however,  a few  canals  taken  from  the  upper  river  above  the  point 
at  which  it  enters  the  valley  and  carried  out  upon  the  bench  lands 
upon  the  eastern  side  of  the  valley  south  of  the  town  of  Montpelier. 

The  lake  is  separated  from  the  marsh  to  the  north  by  a long,  low 
ridge  of  sand,  thrown  up  by  the  waves  to  a height  of  from  2 to  5 feet 
above  the  ordinary  water  level.  This  sand  ridge  is  about  o miles  in 


BEAR  RIVER  CANYON,  UTAH. 


* 


NEWELL.] 


BEAR  LAKE. 


329 


length  and  from  100  to  300  feet  in  width.  It  is  pierced  in  two  places 
by  narrow  passages,  through  which  the  water  flows  from  the  lake  into 
the  marsh,  or  from  the  marsh  to  the  lake,  depending  upon  the  relative 
elevation  of  each. 

In  the  fall  of  1889  the  Bear  Lake  and  River  Canal  Company  was  by 
means  of  plow  and  scraper  raising  this  natural  embankment  by  scrap- 
ing up  the  sand  from  the  shore  of  the  lake  and  dumping  it  on  top,  the 
object  being,  it  was  asserted,  to  increase  the  storage  capacity  of  the 
lake  by  blocking  the  natural  outlet.  It  was  obvious,  however,  that 
such  construction  could  be  of  little  if  any  use  toward  this  end,  but  was 
undertaken  as  a preliminary  step  toward  the  attempt  to  acquire  some 
right  or  title  to  the  use  of  this  lake  as  a storage  reservoir. 

LOWER  BEAU  RIVER. 

North  of  Bear  Lake  Marsh  the  river  flows  northwesterly  and  then 
westerly  to  Soda  Springs  through  very  narrow  valleys  with  occasional 
strips  of  meadow  land.  The  bounding  hills  are  of  irregular  rounding 
outlines  and  are  suitable  only  for  grazing.  Around  Soda  Springs  are 
large  areas  of  level  land,  wild  and  uncultivated,  the  town  itself  depend- 
ing for  support  upon  the  springs,  which  attract  to  it  a number  of  sum- 
mer tourists.  Beyond  Soda  Springs  to  the  north  and  west  stretch 
broad  lava  fields,  extending  to  and  beyond  the  Snake  River.  The 
Bear  River  on  entering  this  lava  flow  is  deflected  toward  the  south, 
and  for  a time  flowing  upon  it,  finally  cuts  a deep  channel  and  contin- 
ues in  a gorge. 

From  Soda  Springs  down  to  the  north  end  of  Gentile  Valley  the 
valley  proper  is  underlaid  by  lava,  but  in  places  contains  some  irriga- 
ble land.  On  the  east  side  the  mountains  come  down  to  the  river;  on 
the  west  side  is  the  lava  plain.  As  gauged  August  17,  1877,  by  Henry 
Gannett  at  Soda  Springs,  Bear  River  was  found  to  carry  1,000  second- 
feet,1 

In  the  northern  part  of  Gentile  Valley  a company  or  association  of 
irrigators  has  begun  work  toward  constructing  a ditch  on  each  side  of 
Bear  River  to  irrigate  a broad  lava  plain  or  bench.  In  some  places, 
however,  the  soil  of  this  is  so  thin  that  the  lava  is  exposed  to  view,  and 
in  others  the  surface  is  so  broken  as  to  be  unfit  for  irrigation.  Thus  it 
appears  to  be  an  unpromising  locality  for  advantageous  employment  of 
water. 

Gentile  Valley  is  a prosperous  agricultural  region.  Unlike  Cache 
Valley  and  most  of  the  valleys  of  Utah,  each  person  lives  on  his  own 
farm  and  not  in  a village.  The  houses  are  usually  well  kept  and  have 
been  constructed  with  care,  several  of  them  being  of  brick.  Nearly  all 
the  water  for  this  valley  is  taken  directly  from  lateral  creeks  which  flow 
from  the  mountains  on  each  side,  there  being  but  one  completed  ditch 
taking  water  from  Bear  River.  In  the  valley  the  river  lias  a very  slight 


Eleventh  Annual  Report  of  the  Hayden  Survey,  p.  698. 


330 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


fall,  this  being  the  chief  obstacle  to  the  diversion  of  canals.  A large 
portion  of  the  valley,  especially  the  lowlands  along  the  river,  is  de- 
voted to  meadows.  The  rolling  lands  away  from  the  river  are  planted 
in  wheat,  as  are  also  a few  of  the  foothills,  on  which  are  grass  and 
alfalfa.  Warm  Creek  and  Bridge  Creek,  both  rising  in  springs,  empty 
into  the  river  from  the  east,  the  first  about  2 miles  above  the  lower 
canyon,  the  other  4 miles  above.  The  spring  at  the  head  of  Warm 
Creek  flows  about  50  second-feet  and  supplies  four  ditches. 

In  the  lower  end  of  Gentile  Valley  Cottonwood  Creek  enters  upon 
the  west.  The  land  along  it  is  for  the  most  part  rough  and  nonirriga- 
ble.  This  creek  is  unlike  the  creeks  emptying  into  Bear  River  in 
Gentile  Valley  on  the  east  side.  The  volume  varies  greatly  in  the 
spring  and  summer  and  in  dry  or  wet  seasons,  since  it  does  not  head 
in  large  springs, but  depends  upon  the  water  from  mountain  slopes  far  to 
the  west.  In  the  summer  of  1889  it  was  very  low,  and  even  the  few 
ranches  depending  upon  it  suffered  for  water.  The  scarcity  of  that 
year  was  ascribed  in  part  to  the  growing  use  of  water  on  small  hay 
ranches  high  up  on  the  stream.  It  is  doubtful  if  reservoirs  can  be 
constructed  on  account  of  the  gravelly,  open  character  of  the  soil  and 
rocks. 

Below  Cottonwood  Creek,  on  the  east  side,  is  Mink  Creek,  supplied 
by  three  large  springs  about  0 miles  from  Mink  Creek  Settlement,  and 
discharging  about  75  second-feet,  this  quantity  of  water  being  in 
excess  of  the  needs  of  the  tilled  lands.  The  waters  are  clear  and  cold 
and  therefore  are  not  as  desirable  for  irrigation  as  those  of  Bear  River 
would  be.  The  cultivated  areas  are  on  the  hillsides,  as  there  is  very 
little  level  land. 

CACHE  VALLEY. 

Cache  Valley  has  been  termed  the  “granary  of  Utah.”  It  is  one  of 
finest  of  the  large  valleys  of  that  Territory  and  contains  many  towns 
and  villages  dependent  upon  agriculture  for  support.  The  northern 
end  of  this  valley  lies  in  Idaho,  the  line  between  Utah  and  Idaho  cross- 
ing the  valley  from  east  to  west.  At  the  north  the  land  is  high, 
sloping  in  a series  of  terraces  toward  the  south.  On  this  high  ground 
several  ditches  have  already  been  dug,  winding  about  among  the  hills 
and  deriving  their  water  from  the  creeks  entering  the  valley  from  the 
northeast.  The  Bear  River  is  relatively  at  too  low  an  elevation  to 
cover  the  highest  of  this  ground. 

In ‘the  gorge  north  of  the  Cache  Valley,  about  3£  miles  from  its 
mouth,  there  is  an  excellent  site  for  a reservoir,  a 30-foot  dam  making 
a pond  1-7  miles  long,  the  first  mile  being  on  an  average  of  1,500  feet 
wide  and  the  upper  portion  800  feet  wide.  The  elevation  of  the  river 
at  this  proposed  dam  site,  referred  to  the  datum  of  the  Utah  and  Xortli- 
eru  Railroad,  is  4,087  feet.  Above  this  point  the  bottom  land  rises  for 
2 miles  at  the  rate  of  18  feet  per  mile,  and  then  for  a half  mile  at  the 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  BEAR  RIVER  AT  BATTLE  CREEK,  IDAHO. 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  XCIV 


NEWELL.] 


BEAR  RIVER  IN  CACHE  VALLEY. 


331 


rate  of  30  feet  per  mile.  From  the  proposed  dam  down-stream  is  a 
rapid  fall  for  3J  miles  to  the  mouth  of  the  canyon,  where  the  eleva- 
tion, referred  to  the  same  datum,  is  4,620,  the  first  mile  falling  at  the 
rate  of  25  feet,  and  then  at  about  18  feet  per  mile.  From  the  mouth 
of  the  canyon  southerly  down  river  the  fall  is  19  feet  per  mile  to 
Riverdale  settlement,  2^  miles  below.  From  there  down  the  fall 
varies  from  24  feet  to  6 feet  per  mile  to  Battle  Creek  railroad  bridge 
and  gauging  station,  which  is  8£  miles  below  the  canyons,  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  water  there  being  4,477  feet.  The  diagram  of  discharge  at 
this  point  is  shown  on  PI.  xciv,  and  the  monthly  means  are  given  in  the 
tables  appended. 

From  the  railroad  bridge  the  fall  varies  from  3*8  feet  to  6-8  feet  per 
mile,  for  about  5 miles,  to  an  elevation  of  4,450.  At  about  this  place 
the  rapids  disappear  and  the  fall  becomes  more  gentle,  being  from  1-0 
to  2-5  feet  per  mile  as  far  down  as  Franklin  and  Benson  road  bridge, 
nearly  10  miles  below  Battle  Creek  bridge,  at  which  point  the  eleva- 
tion is  4,436.  For  3 miles  below  this  bridge  the  hill  continues  at  2-5 
feet  per  mile,  then  decreases  to  0-5  per  mile,  varying  from  this  to  1-5 
through  the  rest  of  the  Cache  Valley,  excepting  at  two  or  three  places 
where  small  riffles  occur,  the  fall  there  increasing  to  the  rate  of  5 feet 
per  mile.  From  the  Franklin  Benson  bridge  for  35  miles  down,  follow- 
ing the  river,  the  fall  averages  1-11  feet  per  mile,  the  elevation  being 
at  that  lowest  point  4,397  feet. 

This  shows  that  the  river  falls  sufficiently  to  enable  a canal  taken 
out  at  the  reservoir  site  before  noted  to  cover  a large  part,  if  not  all, 
of  the  high-lying  bench  lands  on  the  west  side  of  the  valley,  lands  of 
wonderful  fertility,  but  which  are  now  useless  for  the  lack  of  water, 
and  also  that  sufficient  elevation  can  be  obtained  in  the  gorge  of  Bear 
River  to  enable  a canal  to  be  taken  out  to  cover  the  bench  land  in  the 
vicinity  of  Preston.  A large  portion  of  these  Hats,  however,  is  now 
irrigated  by  a ditch  from  Cub  Creek,  and  another  canal  is  being  con- 
structed to  take  water  from  Mink  Creek. 

Cache  Valley,  with  the  exception  of  a part  of  the  west  side,  is  per- 
haps the  best  watered  of  any  valley  of  the  Territory.  Besides  the 
Bear  River,  which  flows  through  it  from  north  to  south,  but  from  which 
very  little  water  is  used,  there  are  a number  of  large  tributaries  rising- 
in  the  high  mountains  to  the  west  of  Bear  Lake.  The  principal  of 
these  are  Cub  Creek,  Logan  River,  Blacksmith  Fork,  and  Box  Elder 
Creek.  On  the  west  side  are  also  one  or  two  streams,  but  these,  though 
supplying  a considerable  area,  are  of  less  importance,  and  a large 
area  is  left  unwatered.  On  the  headwaters  of  the  Logan  River  and 
Blacksmith  Fork  are  a number  of  localities  at  which  storage  reservoirs 
could  be  built,  but  these  are  of  a small  area  and  only  of  local  impor- 
tance. The  results  of  measurements  made  of  the  discharge  of  Logan 
River  have  been  given  in  the  previous  annual  report. 

The  necessities  of  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  west  side  of  Cache 


332 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


Valley  have  forced  them  to  attempt  water  storage,  and  it  is  instructive 
to  note  the  progress  in  this  direction.  A brief  description  of  the  reser- 
voir built  by  the  residents  of  the  town  of  Newton  may  be  instructive, 
not  that  there  is  anything  remarkable  about  this,  but  because  it  is  in 
many  ways  typical  of  a number  of  small  reservoirs  in  various  parts 
the  arid  region. 

Newton  Reservoir  is  situated  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Cache  Val- 
ley, about  3 miles  north  of  the  village  of  Newton,  from  which  it  derives 
its  name,  and  upon  the  lands  adjoining  which  the  waters  are  used.  The 
reservoir  is  on  a somewhat  rolling  and  broken  plain,  into  which  Clarks- 
ton  Creek  has  cut,  forming  this  basin.  When  full  the  water  surface 
is  2 miles  long,  has  an  average  width  of  about  2.30  feet  and  an  area  of 
147  acres,  with  an  average  depth  of  water  of  about  0 feet,  the  capacity 
of  the  reservoir  being  thus  from  800  to  900  acre-feet. 

The  waters  are  confined  by  two  dams,  one  on  each  side  of  a hill  at 
the  north  end  of  the  reservoir,  the  smaller  of  these  dams  being  used  as 
a waste  weir.  The  main  dam  is  about  500  feet  long  and  30  feet  high 
at  the  highest  point.  It  is  constructed  of  earth,  the  outside  slope  being 
about  4 to  1 and  the  inside  one  being  3 to  1.  The  steeper  inside  slope 
is  formed  of  a series  of  steps,  these  steps  or  terraces  being  held  up  by 
sheet  piling  of  3-incli  plank.  The  dams  could  be  raised  10  or  15  feet 
at  a moderate  cost  and  the  capacity  of  the  reservoir  thus  largely 
increased.  The  drainage  area  of  Clarkston  Creek  is  40  square  miles, 
more  than  half  of  which  is  mountainous. 

The  first  dam  was  built  by  the  people  of  Newton  eighteen  years  ago, 
and  has  continued  to  be  owned  solely  by  the  landowners  and  water- 
users  of  that  village.  All  of  their  cultivated  lands,  to  the  extent  of 
1,000  acres,  are  irrigated  solely  from  this  reservoir,  and  without  it  the 
village  would  be  deserted  and  the  lands  return  to  their  original  desert 
condition,  as  the  water  of  Clarkston  Creek  is  entirely  consumed  by  the 
farmers  of  Clarkston  during  the  irrigation  season.  With  the  present 
capacity  of  the  reservoir  no  more  than  1,000  acres  can  be  cultivated. 
Practically  the  whole  of  this  acreage  is  in  wheat.  An  ‘‘irrigating 
head,”  that  is,  the  quantity  that  an  irrigator  can  readily  distribute  on 
his  land,  or  a stream  of  3 to  G second-feet,  is  allowed  to  run  for  two 
hours  for  each  acre  for  the  first  watering,  and  for  the  second  an  “irri- 
gating head”  for  one  and  a half  hours  per  acre,  two  waterings  being 
usually  sufficient  for  a crop  of  wheat. 

To  construct  the  reservoir  $7,000  was  originally  contributed  in  cash, 
labor,  or  in  material,  and  there  have  been  subsequent  assessments  to 
an  unknown  amount,  three  dams  being  carried  away  in  succession  and 
rebuilt.  For  Clarkston  Creek  to  fill  the  reservoir  usually  requires  from 
two  to  three  weeks,  but  in  1889,  an  exceptionally  dry  year,  with  light 
snowfall,  the  gates  were  shut  the  1st  of  March  and  the  reservoir  was 
barely  filled  before  irrigation  began. 

The  second  irrigation  is  usually  finished  about  July  1,  and  the  reser- 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  BEAR  RIVER  AT  COLLINSTON,  UTAH. 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 


NEWELL.] 


WATER  STORAGE  ON  BEAR  RIVER. 


333 


voir  is  then  entirely  drained.  It  lias  happened  that  the  reservoir  has 
been  refilled  during  the  summer  by  storm  waters,  but  this  is  very  ex- 
ceptional and  is  not  to  be  depended  upon.  In  September,  1889,  at  the 
time  the  reservoir  was  empty,  the  creek,  then  at  a minimum,  was  dis- 
charging about  5 second-feet  through  the  site. 

In  the  lower  part  of  Cache  Valley  Bear  River  turns  rapidly  to  the 
west  and  passes  out  through  a deep,  narrow  canyon,  known  as  “ the 
Gates,”  entering  the  Salt  Lake  Valley.  In  this  canyon  (see  PI.  xcm), 
in  the  fall  of  1889,  one  of  the  largest  canals  of  the  West  was  begun,  it 
being  designed  to  carry  2,000  second-feet.  The  head  works  are  placed 
in  the  upper  end  of  the  canyon,  where  a low  dam  raises  the  water  into 
the  canals,  these  latter  being  built  along  the  side  of  the  canyon  par- 
tially in  open  cut  and  partially  in  tunnel.  One  branch  runs  almost 
directly  west  across  the  Malade  River  and  covers  the  large  plain  north 
of  Corinne,  and  the  other  branch  is  intended  to  continue  down  on  the 
east  side  of  the  valley  through  the  various  towns  and  farms  along  the 
foothills,  finally  ending  in  the  city  of  Ogden. 

At  the  time  at  which  the  work  upon  this  canal  was  begun  there  was, 
owing  to  the  exceptionally  dry  season,  considerably  less  than  1,000 
second-feet  in  the  river.  This  fact  was  well  known,  and  uneasiness  was 
felt  by  the  older  appropriators  of  water  all  along  the  river  as  to  the 
probable  action  of  the  company  building  these  canals,  and  their  feelings 
were  voiced  in  a protest  made  at  the  Idaho  State  convention  and  in 
appeals  to  the  Federal  authorities. 

It  is  obvious  from  a broad,  comprehensive  knowledge  of  this  river 
system,  from  a consideration  of  the  climate  of  its  upper  courses  and  the 
wasteful  utilization  of  the  water  for  hay  meadows  in  high  altitudes,  that 
the  effort  should  be  made,  if  the  water  is  to  be  used  to  the  best  advan- 
tage, to  discourage  larger  occupation  of  the  lands  at  the  headwaters. 
There  should  also  be  an  attempt  made  to  prevent  the  imposing  upon 
these  lands  of  inefficient,  imperfect,  or  defective  systems  of  water  utiliza- 
tion and  of  canal  or  reservoir  construction.  The  water  supply  of  the 
whole  region  being  limited,  the  high-lying  areas  should  not  be  developed 
to  the  injury  of  better  lands  or  of  older  water  rights. 

The  settlers,  however,  are  pushing  up  into  these  high  altitudes,  where 
no  crops  except  hay  can  be  raised,  and  there  they  are  using  enormous 
quantities  of  water  in  a wasteful  manner,  turning  it  out  without  system 
or  economy  upon  tracts  of  grazing  land,  converting  these  into  meadows 
where  only  the  coarser  grasses  can  grow.  This  water,  which  in  former 
times  following  the  course  of  the  river  came  into  the  lower  altitudes, 
was  used  by  the  older  settlers  upon  crops  of  far  greater  value. 

There  are  two  gauging  stations  on  this  river,  one  at  Battle  Creek, 
Idaho,  below  the  railroad  bridge  formerly  used  by  the  Utah  and  North- 
ern Railroad,  the  other  at  Collinston,  Utah,  in  the  lower  end  of  the 
canyon  below  Cache  Valley,  being  thus  below  the  head  works  of  the  new 
canal  just  mentioned.  The  daily  discharges  at  these  localities  are 
shown  on  Pis.  xciv  and  xcv  respectively. 


334 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


These  diagrams  are  very  similar  in  general  appearance,  that  for  the 
lower  station  showing  the  increase  in  water  received  from  the  many 
tributaries  entering  the  Bear  in  Cache  Valley.  The  most  notable  fea- 
ture in  both  cases  is  the  smaller  discharge  for  the  year  1891.  Compar- 
ing these  with  the  diagrams  of  discharge  of  rivers  in  California  and 
Nevada,  a striking  feature  is  the  comparative  steadiness  of  the  flood 
discharge  in  May  and  June,  the  river  gradually  reaching  a maximum, 
remaining  at  or  near  this  point  for  days  or  weeks,  and  then  declining 
slowly  and  steadily,  and  without  those  great  fluctuations  so  character- 
istic of  the  streams  before  mentioned.  Much  of  this  regularity  of  flow 
is  due  doubtless  to  the  fact  that  a large  part  of  the  flood  comes  from  a 
great  distance  and  from  many  tributaries,  the  irregularities  of  any  one 
being  to  a certain  extent  neutralized  by  those  of  others,  and  also  to 
the  influence  of  Bear  Lake  midway  in  the  course  of  the  river. 

THE  OGDEN  AND  WEBER  RIVERS. 

These  rivers  rise  in  the  Wasatch  Mountains  southwest  of  the  Bear 
drainage,  and  flowing  in  a general  westerly  direction  enter  the  Salt 
Lake  Valley  a short  distance  below  the  point  where  the  Bear  flows 
into  Salt  Lake.  Their  catchment  areas  are  thus  in  many  ways  similar 
in  topography  and  climate  to  those  of  the  more  southern  tributaries  of 
the  Bear,  and  the  fluctuations  of  their  waters  present  many  points  of 
similarity.  The  gauging  stations  of  these  rivers  are  in  the  canyons 
above  the  heads  of  irrigating  ditches,  thus  obtaining  the  full  discharge 
of  each  stream. 

On  Pis.  xcvi  and  xcvii  the  discharges  of  these  streams  are  given, 
that  of  the  Weber  being  continued  till  June,  1891.  It  is  noticeable  in 
this  case,  as  in  that  of  Bear  River,  that  the  discharge  for  1891  is  smaller 
to  a marked  degree  than  that  of  1890.  The  steadiness  of  the  spring 
flood  is  also  remarkable,  being  similar  to  that  of  the  Bear,  though  less 
regular.  These  rivers  have,  however,  no  large  lakes  to  act  as  equal- 
izers of  the  discharge,  the  water  coming  directly  from  the  snows  on  the 
lofty  mountains. 

UTAH  LAKE  DRAINAGE. 

Utah  Lake  is  a body  of  fresh  water,  very  shallow,  with  an  extreme 
length  of  22  miles  and  greatest  width  of  7 miles,  the  water  supply 
coming  almost  entirely  from  the  Wasatch  Mountains,  with  very  little 
from  the  low-lying  foothills  on  the  north  and  south,  or  from  the  Lake 
Mountains  on  the  west.  The  principal  river  flowing  into  the  lake  is 
the  Provo,  which  enters  on  the  east  side  near  the  city  of  the  same 
name.  North  of  this  is  the  American  Fork  River,  and  south  of  it  the 
Spanish  Fork,  also  Hobble  Creek,  Payson  Creek,  and  Salt  Creek,  which 
comes  from  the  valley  to  the  south.  In  the  summer  and  fall  these 
streams  are  very  small,  in  some  cases  their  beds  are  almost  dry,  but  in 
spring  they  are  rivers  of  considerable  size,  and  occasionally  take  the 


NEWELL.] 


TRIBUTARIES  OF  UTAH  LAKE. 


335 


character  of  mountain  torrents,  bringing  an  enormous  quantity  of  water 
to  the  lake.  Along  the  shores  of  the  lake,  especially  on  the  west  side, 
are  many  springs,  some  hot  or  warm,  but  the  amount  of  water  which 
these  underground  sources  contribute  is  small  in  comparison  with  that 
which  flows  on  the  surface. 

The  daily  discharges  of  the  American  Fork  and  Spanish  Fork  rivers 
during  the  low  water  of  1889  and  flood  of  1890  are  shown  on  PI.  xcviii, 
the  American  Fork  occupying  the  upper  part  of  the  diagram,  and  the 
Spanish  Fork  the  lower.  In  the  case  of  the  former  stream  the  gauging 
station  was  destroyed  by  a flood  due  to  the  bursting  of  a dam,  but  the 
probable  discharge,  obtained  from  considerations  of  other  data,  is  shown 
by  the  dotted  line,  making  a complete  year.  The  American  Fork  drains 
an  area  of  about  06  square  miles,  while  the  Spanish  Fork  receives  water 
from  an  area  of  670  square  miles  or  over  ten  times  as  much.  The 
diagram  shows,  however,  that  the  discharges  are  nearly  equal,  that  of  the 
American  Fork  being  somewhat  smaller.  An  exact  comparison  of  the 
relative  run-off  of  these  two  streams  can  be  seen  by  referring  to  the 
table  on  page  104  of  the  preceding  annual  report. 

The  discharge  of  the  Provo  River  is  given  on  PI.  xcix  for  the  low 
water  of  1889  and  through  1890  up  to  June,  1891.  The  smaller  discharge 
of  this  latter  year  is  noticeable,  showing  that  the  decrease  of  run-off 
characterized  a large  part  of  the  country. 

The  water  of  these  and  other  tributaries  after  entering  Utah  Lake  if 
not  evaporated  is  discharged  toward  the  north  by  the  Jordan  River. 
This,  when  the  water  was  at  a much  higher  level,  cut  a deep  notch 
in  the  edge  of  the  basin  through  which  it  flows  into  Salt  Lake  Valley, 
this  deep  cut  being  located  at  what  is  now  known  as  the  “Point  of  the 
Mountain.”  The  level  of  the  water  of  the  lake  varies  from  month  to 
month,  rising  in  the  spring,  usually  reaching  its  highest  in  May  or  June, 
and  then  falling  steadily  until  the  beginning  of  winter.  Besides  this 
fluctuation  by  seasons  there  is  is  a wide  annual  range,  the  average  level 
for  the  year  rising  or  falling  through  a series  of  years,  the  extreme  range 
of  water  level  since  the  settlement  of  the  country  being  about  12  feet. 

No  systematic  record  of  the  discharge  of  Utah  Lake  through  Jor- 
dan River  has  been  kept,  although  the  water  in  seasons  of  scarcity  is 
apportioned  to  the  various  canals.  The  matter  is  of  such  fundamental 
importance  to  the  county  and  city  of  Salt  Lake,  as  well  as  to  various 
canal  companies,  that  it  seems  strange  that  no  record  lias  been  made  of 
the  amount  taken  by  the  various  canals  or  flowing  to  waste.  On  May 
21,  1889,  Mr.  J.  Fewson  Smith  ascertained  by  weir  measurement  that 
the  discharge  was  218  second-feet.  In  the  latter  part  of  June  the  dis- 
charge began  to  diminish,  and  by  September  the  flow  had  declined  to 
48  second-feet.  During  the  succeeding  winter  there  was  a heavy  snow- 
fall in  the  mountains,  and  in  the  summer  following  the  supply  in  the 
lake  and  river  was  ample  for  ordinary  needs,  .so  that  measurements 
were  not  made. 


336 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


The  fluctuations  in  the  surface  of  this  lake  from  month  to  month  are 
shown  in  Fig.  229,  beginning  in  1883.  This  year  was  marked  by  the 
greatest  rise  as  yet  recorded,  the  unusual  snowfall  of  the  previous 
winter  being  rapidly  melted  by  the  warm  rains  of  spring  and  bringing  a 
great  (quantity  of  water  to  the  lake,  submerging  the  shores  and  causing 
large  loss  to  the  people  of  Utah  County  occupying  the  low  lands.  The 
top  of  the  flood  line  for  each  successive  year,  to  and  including  1889,  is 
seen  to  be  less  and  less,  the  lake  in  no  succeeding  year  reaching  at  its 
maximum  a height  equal  to  that  of  the  preceding  year. 

As  the  shores,  excepting  on  the  west  side,  are  very  low  and  with  gentle 
slope  toward  the  lake,  the  inclination  in  places  being  less  than  4 feet  to 
the  mile,  this  variation  of  surface  increases  and  diminishes  the  water 
area  greatly,  the  shore  advancing  or  retreating  over  a strip  of  land  from 
1 to  2 miles  or  even  more  in  width.  It  may  be  said  that  for  every  foot 


Fio.  229. — Diagram  of  fluctuations  of  Utah  Lake. 


rise  about  1,000  acres  of  pasture  lands  are  submerged,  and  on  the  con- 
trary, for  every  foot  fall  this  amount  of  land  is  restored  to  use.  These 
bordering  lands  are  of  great  value  to  the  people  dwelling  around  the 
shores. of  the  lake,  for  the  arable  and  pasture  lauds  of  Utah  County, 
being  at  the  best  somewhat  restricted,  are  all  utilized. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  waters  of  the  lake  discharged  through  the 
Jordan  River  are  of  prime  importance  to  the  inhabitants  of  Salt  Lake 
County,  for  upon  this  water  depends  the  larger  portion  of  the  cultiva- 
tion of  that  broad  and  fertile  plain.  In  1874  a dam  was  built  in  the 
Jordan  at  the  u Point  of  the  Mountain,”  where  the  first  decided  fall  or 
riffles  of  the  water  occur,  its  purpose  being  to  raise  the  water  to 
the  height  of  the  two  highest  canals.  On  the  one  side,  in  Salt  Lake 
County,  there  is  more  land  to  be  irrigated  than  water  to  cover  it,  and, 
on  the  other  side,  around  Utah  Lake,  are  enormous  tracts  of  land 
whose  value  depends  upon  keeping  the  level  of  the  lake  to  the  minimum. 

A survey  of  the  lake  was  made  in  1889  at  a time  when,  owing  to  un- 
usual droughts,  the  water  was  lower  than  it  had  been  for  nearly  ten 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  WEBER  RIVER  ABOVE  UINTA,  UTAH. 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  XCVII 


NEWELL.] 


FLUCTUATIONS  OF  UTAH  LAKE. 


337 


years,  and  large  bodies  of  land  previously  inaccessible  from  the  soft 
and  treacherous  character  of  the  surfaces  could  be  traversed  with  ease. 
The  map  showing  the  result  of  this  survey  is  on  PI.  xcv  of  the  preceding 
annual  report  of  this  Survey. 

On  the  north  and  east  the  profile  of  the  land  bordering  the  lake  showed 
a decided  storm  beach  or  ridge  of  sand  from  2 to  5 feet  above  the  aver- 
age level  of  the  water  at  that  time,  and  from  100  to  200  feet  in  width. 
Behind  this  were  marshes  intersected  by  strips  of  open  water  from  1 to 
5 feet  deep,  and  filled  with  a luxuriant  growth  of  tall  weeds  and  bushes. 
This  ridge  holds  back  the  seepage  water  which  comes  from  the  farms 
above,  and  retains  the  water  in  the  marsh  in  places  from  1 to  2 feet 
higher  than  that  in  the  lake,  but  during  the  late  spring  and  summer 
this  usually  either  escapes  to  the  lake  or  dries  up. 

In  general  the  lake  acts  as  an  equalizer  or  safety  valve  for  the  great 
floods  which  come  from  the  high,  steep  slopes  of  the  Wasatch  Moun- 
tains. In  its  natural  condition  it  discharges  freely  during  the  summer 
and  fall  through  the  Jordan  River,  the  velocity  and  discharge  of  that 
stream  depending  upon  the  height  of  the  water  in  the  lake.  It  is  evi- 
dent from  the  floods  that  have  occurred  in  times  past  that  the  Jordan 
in  its  natural  condition  could  not  deliver  during  the  autumn  and  winter 
all  of  the  water  which  came  in  during  one  or  two  months  of  flood  in  the 
spring.  From  this  it  resulted  that  before  the  dam  was  built  the  lake 
has  had  a decided  range  from  year  to  year. 

As  to  the  precise  influence  of  the  dam  in  the  Jordan,  observations 
are  not  as  yet  of  a sufficiently  detailed  character  to  I’eveal  this  clearly. 
It  is  obvious,  however,  that  while  the  dam  influences  to  a certain  de- 
gree the  height  of  the  water  in  the  lake,  and  holds  back  during  the 
summer  a considerable  amount  of  water,  it  can  not  in  the  long  run  ob- 
literate or  greatly  modify  the  variation  from  year  to  year.  Its  influence 
will  be  in  the  direction  of  making  the  floods  higher,  but  its  removal 
would  in  nowise  obviate  the  danger  or  probability  of  their  occurrence. 

The  area  of  the  lake  at  low  water  is  approximately  80,000  acres,  and 
the  evaporation  from  the  surface,  the  lake  being  shallow  and  exposed  to 
the  winds,  is  enormous  in  comparison  to  the  amount  discharged  through 
the  Jordan.  In  order  to  estimate  the  quantity  of  water  thus  passing 
into  the  air,  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  some  assumptions,  from  the 
fact  that  direct  measurements  of  evaporation  from  this  lake  are  very 
difficult.  The  amount  of  evaporation  from  pans  3 feet  square  has 
been  obtained  at  certain  places,  as  described  in  the  preceding  annual 
report  of  this  Survey,1  and  estimates  of  the  relative  evaporation  at 
Salt  Lake  City  have  been  carried  on  by  the  Signal  Service,  U.  S.  Army. 

The  evaporation  investigations  of  this  latter  organization  were  carried 
on  in  a uniform  manner  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States  by  means 
of  a small  instrument  called  the  Piche  evaporometer,  described  in  the 
Monthly  Weather  Review  for  September,  1888. 

1 Eleventh  Annual  Report,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Part  ir,  pp.  30-34. 

12  GKEOL.,  PT.  2 22 


338 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


The  possible  evaporation  at  Salt  Lake  City,  as  obtained  by  compu- 
tations based  upon  the  use  of  this  instrument,  is  given  in  the  table 
below,  in  connection  with  the  results  of  measurement  of  evaporation 
from  a pan  in  the  reservoir  at  Fort  Douglas,  the  military  post  outside 
the  city.  From  a consideration  of  these  figures  and  other  data,  a depth 
of  evaporation,  given  in  the  sixth  column,  has  been  assumed  for  Utah 
Lake. 

Monthly  evaporation. 


January — 
February  . 

March 

April  

May 

J une 

July 

August 

September  . 
October  — 
November. . 
December . 

Total 


Months. 


Salt 

Lake 

City. 

Picbe. 


Inches. 


Fort  Douglas  evapora- 
ting pan. 


Utah  Lake,  assumed 
evaporation. 


1889.  i 1890. 


Inches.  ' Inches. 


1891. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Acre-feet. 


Second- 

feet. 


1-8 

2‘7 

3-6 

7- 2 
6-9 

8- 9 

9- 2 
10-7 

9-6 

6-5 

5-0 


10.5 

5-7 

4-9 

1-0 


*1-0 

*1-5  

*2-5  

3 7 3 2 

4-1  4-8 

51  5'2 

7-6  7-6 

6-5  65 

4-6  5-2 

2‘1  2-5 

1-2  1-4 


23  *1-1 

74  4 41-0 


1-0 

2-0 

3-5 

5-0 

5-0 

7- 0 

8- 0 
8-4 
7-0 
5-4 
2-0 
1-7 


56-0 


6,  666 

108 

13,  333 

240 

23,  333 

380 

33,  333 

559 

33,  333 

542 

46,  666 

783 

53,  333 

866 

56,  000 

911 

46,  666 

783 

36,  000 

586 

13,  333 

224 

11,  333 

184 

435,  429 

t514 

* Assumed. 


1 Mean. 


If,  for  example,  during  January  the  lake  has  a surface  area  of  80,000 
acres  and  loses  only  1 inch  in  depth,  the  total  loss  for  the  month  would 
be  0,666  acre-feet,  an  amount  sufficient  to  supply  a stream  flowing  at 
the  rate  of  108  second-feet.  In  February,  the  area  remaining  constant, 
but  the  evaporation  increasing  to  2 inches,  the  loss  would  be  13,333 
acre-feet,  or  240  cubic  feet  per  second.  These  cpiantities  are  given  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  columns,  being  computed  on  the  basis  of  a loss 
in  depth  per  month,  as  given  in  the  sixth  column,  from  a constant  area 
of  80,000  acres.  The  mean  loss  by  evaporation  throughout  the  year, 
according  to  this  conservative  estimate,  is  514  second-feet. 

The  mean  discharge  of  the  Provo,  the  principal  feeder  of  the  lake, 
for  the  year  from  July  1,  1889,  to  June  30,  1890,  was  532  second-feet,  and 
for  the  year  from  July,  1890,  to  June,  1891,  was  472  second-feet.  For 
the  American  Fork,  from  August  1,  1889,  to  July  31,  1890,  the  mean 
discharge  was  approximately  149  second-feet,  and  for  the  Spanish  Fork, 
from  September  1, 1889,  to  August  31, 1890,  was  172  second-feet.  These 
are  results  obtained  by  measurements  in  the  canyons  above  the  agricul- 
tural land  of  Utah  County.  Not  all  or  even  perhaps  half  of  this  water 
reaches  the  lake,  as  the  greater  part  is  diverted  to  the  fields  and  there 
evaporated.  Comparing,  however,  the  total  flow  of  the  Provo  with  this 
computed  evaporation,  it  is  apparent  that  the  whole  discharge  of  this 
stream,  including  the  floods,  is  necessary  in  order  to  counterbalance 
the  loss  by  evaporation,  and  also  that  the  united  discharge  of  the 
Amercan  Fork  and  Spanish  Fork  is  only  about  60  per  cent  of  this  loss. 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  AMERICAN  FORK  AND  SPANISH  FORK  AT  MOUTH  OF  CANYONS,  UTAH. 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 

10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25 


NEWELL.] 


UTAH  LAKE  AS  A RESERVOIR. 


339 


A comparison  of  these  and  other  facts  shows  that  the  lake  is  in  effect 
too  large  to  be  most  effective  as  a storage  reservoir.  In  other  words, 
the  efficiency  of  the  lake  as  a reservoir  would  be  greatly  increased  if  its 
area  could  be  reduced  even  to  less  that  half  of  its  present  extent;  for 
by  so  doing  in  years  of  scarcity,  as  those  of  1888  and  1889,  a large  pro- 
portion of  the  water  which  reaches  the  lake,  instead  of  being  lost  by 
evaporation,  would  be  retained  and  held  for  use  in  canals  which  cover 
the  land  of  Salt  Lake  County.  On  the  other  hand,  considering  this 
question  from  a theoretical  standpoint,  if  the  lake  were  only  one- 
lialf  its  present  area,  the  floods  which  come  in  years  of  exceptional 
precipitation  would  cause  a far  greater  proportional  increase  of  water 
surface  than  now  takes  place,  for  this  water,  being  thrown  into  a smaller 
lake  and  being  able  to  escape  but  slowly  through  the  Jordan  River, 
would  of  necessity  encroach  upon  a far  greater  proportion  of  the  sur- 
rounding lands. 

Thus,  while  to  obtain  the  maximum  amount  of  water  in  years  of 
scarcity  it  would  be  better  if  the  lake  were  small,  yet  to  take  care  of 
the  floods,  which  will  happen  at  intervals  of  from  five  to  ten  years,  it 
is  necessary  that  the  lake  have  a flood  area  as  large  as  it  now  has,  or 
even  what  it  would  have  at  the  highest  water.  From  consideration  of 
these  points  the  segregation  of  the  land  around  and  under  the  lake 
was  made  to  a contour  line  which  should  be  5 feet  above  the  low- water 
mark  of  1879.1 

SEVIER  RIVER. 

The  Sevier  rises  in  the  high  plateaus  of  southern  Utah,  flows  north- 
erly about  300  miles,  then  turns  abruptly  to  the  west  and  southwest, 
finally  losing  its  waters  in  Sevier  Lake,  an  alkaline  sink.  All  along  its 
course  the  water  is  diverted  for  purposes  of  irrigation,  the  development 
of  agriculture  by  this  means  being  so  great  that  during  the  summer  the 
entire  flow  is  utilized.  On  the  head  waters  of  this  river  are  many  reser- 
voir sites,  probably  the  largest  and  most  valuable  of  any  in  the  Terri- 
tory. The  river  with  gentle  current  winds  through  broad  valleys,  then 
plunges  through  deep,  narrow  canyons,  alternately  assuming  the  char- 
acter of  a tortuous,  sluggish  river  and  a mountain  torrent.  At  the  lower 
end  of  these  open  valleys  the  descent  of  the  river  is  so  small  that  there 
are  frequently  large  marshes,  and  at  the  lower  edge  of  the  marsh  the 
advantages  for  building  a dam  and  holding  back  the  surplus  water  in 
the  river  are  unsurpassed. 

A storage  reservoir  can  be  built  at  the  lower  end  of  one  valley,  and 
the  water  being  discharged  through  the  canyon  can  be  taken  out  in  the 
canals  already  built  upon  the  lands  of  the  valley  next  below.  At  the 
bottom  of  this  valley  another  reservoir  can  be  constructed,  from  which 
in  turn  the  water  discharging  through  the  narrow  gorge  can  be  again 
taken  into  canals  and  utilized  in  turn  upon  the  valley  next  succeeding. 
Thus  a system  might  be  provided  which,  if  properly  utilized,  would  en- 


1 Eleventh  Annual  Report  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Part  n,  p.  183. 


340 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


able  a large  proportion  of  the  water  to  be  used  over  and  over  again  in 
the  course  of  this  river  system. 

The  highest  and  most  southern  of  these  reservoirs  is  that  situated  at 
the  middle  of  Plateau  Valley,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  Pauguitch 
Hayfield,  on  the  east  fork  of  the  Sevier  near  its  headwaters.  Here,  at 
an  elevation  of  about  7,200  feet,  is  a small  lake  and  marsh.  The  alti- 
tude is  too  great  for  crops  to  mature,  but  in  this  hayfield  a number  of 
ranches  have  been  fenced  where  forage  is  raised  as  winter  feed  for  the 
herds  which  in  summer  range  through  the  valley  and  over  the  adjoin- 
ing summits.  The  disadvantage  of  reservoirs  at  this  place  is  the  com- 
paratively small  drainage  areas  above  them  and  their  distance  from  the 
tilled  lauds. 

The  next  location  in  order  is  about  15  miles  northeasterly  from  that 
above  mentioned  at  the  lower  end  of  the  Plateau  Valley,  and  at  a point 
where  the  East  Fork  of  the  Sevier  enters  its  first  canyon.  The  elevation 
is  7,000  feet,  and  the  area  drained  into  this  proposed  reservoir  is  larger, 
including  that  noted  above.  The  situation  is  far  more  favorable,  as 
the  dam  can  be  much  shorter,  and  there  is  in  the  vicinity  an  abundance 
of  material,  both  rock  and  earth,  for  constructing  a dam. 

If  a company  succeeds  in  building  a reservoir  at  one  of  these  places, 
an  important  question  will  arise,  namely,  as  to  how  it  will  be  possible 
to  distinguish  the  water  which  is  thus  acquired  by  storage  from  that 
which  would  naturally  flow  in  the  river.  In  other  words,  what  steps 
can  be  taken  to  prevent  others  from  receiving  the  benefit  of  this  stored 
water;  as,  of  necessity  it  must  be  turned  back  into  the  river  channel, 
which  it  will  follow  for  50  miles  or  more. 

Bordering  this  upper  Plateau  Valley  on  the  east  side  in  the  summits 
are  also  a number  of  small  lakes  admirably  adapted  for  storage  on  a 
small  scale,  but  which  it  seems  unnecessary  to  describe,  as  their  aggre- 
gate capacity  is  less  than  any  one  of  the  reservoir  sites  on  the  main 
stream. 

The  best  place  for  water  storage  on  the  whole  river  is  probably  that 
on  Otter  Creek  at  its  junction  with  the  East  Fork.  Here  is  a marsh  at 
the  lower  end  of  Grass  Valley,  at  an  elevation  of  6,500  feet,  about  one-half 
mile  in  width,  extending  up  the  valley  for  a mile  or  more.  The  average 
fall  of  the  water  surface  here  is  from  6 to  9 inches  to  the  mile.  Otter 
Creek  discharges  through  a narrow  notch  about  180  feet  wide,  where  a 
dam  can  be  built  at  very  small  expense.  The  drainage  area  above  this 
point  is  large;  but  should  it  prove  insufficient  to  fill  a reservoir  basin  of 
the  capacity  proposed  it  is  possible  at  small  expense,  by  building  a canal 
from  the  east  fork  of  the  Sevier,  to  carry  the  entire  flood  waters  of  this 
stream  with  its  enormous  drainage  area  into  this  reservoir.  There  is 
already  a small  ditch  on  the  site  of  such  a canal,  so  that  it  is  evident  to 
the  casual  observer  that  here  exist  all  the  advantages  for  storage  on  a 
large  scale. 

The  facilities  at  this  point  are  well  known  and  have  frequently  been 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  PROVO  RIVER  AT  PROVO,  UTAH. 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 

10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  2 , 5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  2: 


NEWELL.] 


WATER  STORAGE  ON  SEVIER  RIVER. 


341 


examined  and  discussed,  and  unfortunately,  perhaps,  for  the  canal  owners 
below,  they  are  fully  appreciated  by  the  persons  who  claim  to  own  the 
greater  portion  of  the  land  in  the  proposed  site.  The  elevation  in  this 
basin  is  too  great  for  most  crops,  but  large  quantities  of  hay  are  raised 
and  the  marsh  affords  excellent  pasturage  for  cattle. 

Below  this  marsh,  on  the  East  Fork,  where  it  enters  the  canyon,  are 
several  other  excellent  opportunities  for  building  a dam  at  the  lower  end 
of  stretches  of  level  land  on  which  water  can  be  impounded.  There  is  a 
choice  of  sites  here,  and  careful  surveys  and  soundings  for  bed  rock  will 
be  necessary  before  a final  decision  can  be  made. 

All  the  localities  mentioned  above  are  on  the  East  Fork  of  the  Sevier. 
The  West  Fork  drainage  also  includes  a large  number  of  excellent  locali- 
ties, among  which  is  Panguitch  Lake,  well  known  as  a locality  where 
by  the  expenditure  of  a comparatively  small  amount  a dam  can  be  built, 
increasing  the  contents  of  the  lake  and  holding  a large  amount  of  flood 
waters.  From  2 to  3 miles  above  and  southwest  of  the  lake  are  other 
points  at  which  storage  works  could  be  constructed,  the  most  notable 
being  at  or  near  the  wonderful  Blue  Spring,  which  adds  a large  volume 
to  Panguitch  Creek. 

The  situation  on  the  Sevier  is  typical  of  that  which  prevails  in  other  sec- 
tions of  the  country.  The  older  settlers  came  at  first  into  the  lower  valleys 
and  took  out  small  ditches  upon  the  lands  most  favorably  located,  though 
these  were  not  always  of  the  best  quality.  As  these  irrigators  acquired 
property  and  other  inhabitants  flocked  in,  the  ditches  were  enlarged  and 
new  ones,  taking  water  at  points  a little  higher  in  the  river,  were  built, 
the  process  being  continued  until  all  of  the  available  water  at  that  place 
was  taken  out.  In  the  meantime  other  settlements  higher  on  the  river 
were  being  made,  and  these  in  turn  built  larger  and  better  ditches.  The 
younger  men  and  newcomers,  not  finding  sufficient  land  and  water  in 
the  older  communities,  continued  to  go  higher  and  higher  on  the  river, 
taking  out  new  canals,  which  in  turn  diminished  the  water  supply  of  the 
river  below.  Now  the  very  headwaters  of  the  river  are  reached,  and 
settlers  are  coming  to  altitudes  too  great  for  the  raising  of  most  crops, 
but  where  wood  and  water  are  abundant.  There  they  turn  out  upon  the 
high  pasture  lands  the  water  of  the  springs  and  smaller  tributaries, 
wastefully  using  large  quantities  in  this  manner  and  diminishing  the 
flow  of  the  river  itself.  Without  some  regulation  the  matter  must  adjust 
itself  finally  by  the  limiting  or  even  decrease  of  agriculture  in  the  lower 
and  more  fertile  valleys. 

The  Sevier,  after  passing  through  the  canyon  below  Marysvale,  enters 
upon  the  main  Sevier  valley,  near  the  head  of  which  is  the  town  of 
Joseph.  Above  Joseph  a stream  known  as  Clear  Creek  enters  from  the 
left  or  west  side,  which,  even  in  the  dry  season  of  1888  and  1889,  dis- 
charged a considerable  volume  of  water.  In  the  latter  part  of  July  it 
amounted  to  about  25  second-feet.  On  the  headwaters  of  this  creek  are 
numerous  localities  suitable  for  small  storage  reservoirs,  but  the  drain- 


342 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


age  area  is  too  small  for  the  establishment  of  any  comprehensive  system 
which  will  be  of  widespread  benefit  to  the  valleys  below.  The  locality 
is,  however,  favorable  for  small  projects  which  can  be  executed  by  one 
or  more  canal  companies. 

At  and  below  Joseph  City  the  main  canals  supplying  the  Sevier  Val- 
ley are  taken  out  from  the  river,  covering  a large  amount  of  fertile  land. 
The  elevation  of  this  valley  is  approximately  5,000  feet,  and  the  climate 
is  such  that  all  the  grains  and  fruits  of  the  temperate  zone  mature  to 
perfection.  Besides  the  water  of  the  main  river  all  of  the  smaller  tribu- 
taries entering  both  from  the  east  and  from  the  west  are  utilized  to  their 
full  extent,  mainly  by  individual  farmers  or  by  neighborhood  associa- 
tions. At  Richfield,  the  principal  town  of  the  valley,  is  a large  spring, 
which  contributes  greatly  to  the  prosperity  of  the  place. 

In  flowing  through  the  valley  from  Joseph  northward  to  Gunnison 
all  of  the  water  is  taken  out  of  the  river,  and  in  1889  there  were  three 
separate  places  along  its  course  where  the  bed  was  dry.  Below  each 
of  these  places  a certain  amount  of  water  returned  to  the  river,  to  be 
caught  in  succession  by  tight  dams  built  across  the  bed  of  the  stream. 
In  times  of  flood  these  dams  are  almost,  if  not  entirely,  swept  away,  but 
are  replaced  at  the  beginning  of  the  dry  season  and  made  tight  as  the 
water  diminishes  in  volume.  Below  Gunnison  the  Sanpitcli  River 
enters  the  Sevier,  carrying,  however,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  crop  sea- 
son, a very  small  amount  of  water,  if  any. 

There  are  in  addition  several  very  favorable  localities  for  water  stor- 
age on  the  Sanpitcli  and  its  tributaries,  notably  on  Nine  Mile  and 
Twelve  Mile  creeks,  most  of  which  are,  however,  in  use  as  ranches  or 
hay  meadows. 

Below  the  junction  of  the  Saupitch  with  the  Sevier  the  valley  is  still 
wide  and  contains  large  bodies  of  fertile  lands,  to  which,  however,  little 
if  any  water  can  ever  be  taken.  Below  the  settlement  of  Fayette  the 
bounding  hills  approach  each  other,  and  finally  the  river  enters  a deep 
canyon,  above  the  mouth  of  which  is  a favorable  location  for  holding 
water.  After  passing  through  the  canyon  below  Fayette  there  are  inter- 
vals of  comparatively  open  country  and  small  flats  of  a few  acres  scat- 
tered along  the  river. 

Near  Juab,  a station  on  the  Utah  Central  Railroad,  are  several  strips 
of  marsh  and  pasturage  which  drain  through  Chicken  Creek  into  the 
river.  On  this  creek  have  already  been  constructed  one  or  two  small 
artificial  ponds,  where  the  water,  which  rises  principally  in  springs,  is 
collected  and  allowed  to  flow  down  as  needed  upon  the  small  pieces  of 
agricultural  lands  below.  Again,  along  the  river  below  Chicken  Creek, 
are  a number  of  localities  where  water  might  be  held,  notably  at  the 
railroad  station  called  Wellington,  also  at  Mills  Station  and  at  Church 
House. 

At  the  town  of  Leamington  the  river  finally  leaves  the  broken,  hilly 
country  and  begins  to  traverse  the  great  plain  of  the  Sevier  Desert, 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  SEVIER  RIVER  AT  LEAMINGTON,  UTAH. 


> 

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8 2 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL-  C 


NEWELL.] 


LOWER  SEVIER  RIVER. 


343 


cutting  its  way  first  through  a great  accumulation  of  gravels,  the  delta 
of  the  ancient  river.  At  this  point  two  canals  have  been  taken  out  to 
supply  the  town  of  Leamington  and  the  agricultural  district  below. 
About  40  miles  farther  down  is  the  Deseret  Reservoir.  At  this  point 
the  inhabitants  of  the  towns  of  Deseret  and  Oasis  have  cut  a channel 
for  the  river  400  feet  long,  shortening  the  course  about  a mile,  so  that 
the  river,  instead  of  pursuing  a tortuous  channel  around  a large  loop, 
now  pours  through  this  cut-off  across  what  was  previously  a narrow 
neck  of  laud.  The  loop  thus  abandoned  has  been  blocked  tip  at  both 
ends  by  earth  dams  and  is  now  used  as  a reservoir,  receiving  its  water 
by  a long  canal  which  runs  up  the  river  until  it  reaches  a point  suffi- 
ciently low  for  the  water  to  be  diverted  into  it. 

There  is  at  present  constructed,  running  from  this  reservoir,  a canal 
which  passes  out  through  a cut  22  feet  deep  and  24  feet  wide  on  the 
bottom,  which  leads  to  the  town  of  Deseret.  A new  canal  is  projected 
to  take  water  from  the  middle  of  the  old  reservoir  and  irrigate  other 
lands  for  the  purpose  of  starting  a new  colony.  The  local  engineers 
have  estimated  that,  by  raising  the  earth  dams  and  building  better  reg- 
ulating gates,  sufficient  water  can  be  held  in  times  of  floods  to  supply 
the  needs  of  this  new  community. 

This  reservoir  will  be  an  example  of  storage  at  low  elevations  near 
the  land  to  be  irrigated.  The  situation  is  such  that  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  provide  a better  system  for  these  towns.  The  Sevier  winds 
through  so  many  long,  fertile  valleys  in  its  course,  the  water  being  taken 
out  by  innumerable  canals,  that  it  is  impossible  for  the  irrigators  living 
out  on  the  desert  to  provide  storage  for  themselves  in  the  high  moun- 
tains, for  the  question  of  the  distribution  of  water  which  has  flowed 
through  five  or  six  counties  would  involve  interminable  conflicts.  Their 
only  resource,  therefore,  is  to  attempt  to  hold  some  of  the  flood  and 
seepage  water  which  has  come  from  the  irrigated  lands  a hundred 
miles  or  more  above. 

From  the  above  description  of  the  river  and  the  towns  and  communi- 
ties depending  on  its  waters  for  sustenance  it  will  be  seen  that  the  most 
careful  study  must  be  made  of  all  the  conditions  before  a general  sys- 
tem of  storage  can  be  inaugurated  which  will  be  beneficial  to  all.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  reservoirs  in  the  mountains  at  the  headwaters  will  be 
of  great  value  and  advantage  even  to  the  people  who  live  down  in  the 
Sevier  desert,  as  by  their  presence  in  the  mountains  the  summer  flow 
of  ground  water  must  be  increased.  On  the  other  hand,  to  directly 
benefit  the  lower  towns  it  will  be  necessary  to  construct  at  points  in  the 
lower  end  of  several  of  the  populated  valleys  reservoirs  which  will  hold 
at  these  points  the  local  flood  waters,  and  deliver  them  to  the  agricul- 
tural lands  in  the  next  valley  below. 

But  before  any  such  system  of  storage  can  be  successfully  carried 
into  effect  a general  understanding  will  be  necessary  among  the  towns 
and  counties  interested,  by  which  the  whole  body  of  irrigators  shall 


344 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


join  in  tlie  system  of  water  storage  and  then  distribute  the  waters  thus 
saved  according  to  the  judgment  of  all  interested. 

The  discharge  of  this  river  at  the  Leamington  gauging  station  from 
August,  1889,  to  June,  1891,  is  shown  on  PI.  c.,  the  less  discharge  of 
this  latter  period  being  very  noticeable.  The  amount  of  water  passing 
this  station  is  of  course  greatly  affected  by  the  large  diversions  of  water 
all  along  the  river,  and  in  years  of  scarcity,  as  in  1891,  the  flood  dis- 
charge must  come  mainly  from  the  lower  tributaries,  that  from  the 
higher  forks  of  the  stream  being  used  in  the  many  large  canals. 

SNAKE  RIVER  DRAINAGE. 

Stream  measurements  have  been  made  of  the  principal  tributaries  of 
the  Snake  River  in  eastern  Idaho,  and  also  of  lower  tributaries  in  west- 
ern Idaho  and  Oregon.  A brief  description  of  the  topography  of  the 
country  and  of  the  gauging  stations  was  given  in  the  preceding  annual 
report.  The  discharges  at  these  stations  are  shown  on  Pis.  ci  to  cvi. 
The  discharges  for  Henry  Fork,  Falls  River,  and  Teton,  as  well  as  for 
the  Snake  at  Eagle  Rock  or  Idaho  Falls,  are  similar  in  general  char- 
acter, differing  mainly  in  the  quantity  of  water  represented,  but  the 
diagrams  for  the  Owyhee,  Malheur,  and  Weiser  exhibit  distinctive  char- 
acteristics, only  to  be  explained  by  a careful  study  of  the  topography 
of  the  region. 

The  diminished  floods  of  1891  are  very  noticeable,  and  these  are  not 
only  less  in  quantity,  but  culminate  at  an  earlier  date.  The  diagram 
for  the  Weiser  is  peculiar  for  the  number  and  extent  of  the  fluctuations 
of  high  and  low  water  and  the  irregularity  of  the  time  at  which  these 
occur. 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  HENRY  FORK  ABOVE  FALLS  RIVER,  IDAHO. 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  FALLS  AND  TETON  RIVERS  ABOVE  CANALS,  IDAHO. 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 

10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  SNAKE  RIVER  AT  IDAHO  FALLS,  IDAHO. 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 

10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  OWYHEE  RIVER  AT  RIGSBY,  OREGON. 


^ Or  Ci  SI  po  iO 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 

10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  25  5 10  15  20  2; 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  MALHEUR  RIVER  AT  VALE,  OREGON. 


January.  February.  March.  April.  May.  June.  July.  August.  September.  October.  November.  December. 


DAILY  DISCHARGE  OF  THE  WEISER  RIVER  ABOVE  WEISER.  IDAHO. 


TWELFTH  ANNUAL  REPORT  PL.  CVI 


DISCHARGE  TABLED 


The  following  tables  give  the  monthly  discharges  for  the  rivers  upon 
which  observations  of  height  have  been  made  during  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1801.  These  tables  are  similar  in  form  to  those  published  in 
the  preceding  annual  report  of  this  Survey,1  being  in  fact  continuations 
of  many  of  them.  At  the  head  of  each  table  is  the  name  of  the  river 
and  also  the  locality  at  which  the  measurements  were  made,  together 
with  the  total  drainage  area  in  square  miles  above  this  point. 

The  first  column  gives  the  mouth,  and  in  cases  where  observations 
were  made  during  a portion  of  the  month,  the  dates  during  which  these 
were  continued  are  shown  immediately  after  the  name  of  the  month. 
In  such  cases  the  mean  discharge  is  not  that  of  the  whole  month,  but 
of  this  fraction  only.  Under  the  head  of  “discharge”  are  given  the 
maximum,  minimum,  and  mean  discharges  for  each  month  or  portion  of 
month  in  cubic  feet  per  second.  In  several  instances  to  complete  a 
year  estimates  have  been  made  of  the  mean  discharge,  these  estimates 
being  marked  by  an  asterisk. 

At  the  right  of  the  mean  discharge  in  second-feet  are  the  total  dis- 
charges for  the  entire  month  in  acre- feet;  that  is,  the  number  of  acres 
that  would  be  covered  to  a depth  of  1 foot  by  a stream  of  this  given 
size  flowing  coutinuously  through  the  month,  none  of  the  water  being 
lost.  The  last  two  columns  on  the  page  show  the  relation  existing  be- 
tween this  quantity  of  water  and  the  area  from  which  it  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  come.  For  purposes  of  comparison  it  is  assumed  that  this 
water  came  in  equal  quantities  from  each  square  mile  or  acre  of  the 
drainage  basin,  although  as  a matter  of  fact  this  is  recognized  as  im- 
possible, since  in  nearly  all  cases  the  water  running  off  a large  drain- 
age basin  comes  from  comparatively  restricted  localities. 

The  first  of  these  two  columns  gives  the  depth  of  run-off  for  each 
month  in  inches ; that  is  to  say,  this  quantity  of  water  would,  if  put 
upon  a plain  of  equal  area,  cover  it  to  the  depth  given.  The  last  column 
gives  the  run-off  in  second-feet  for  each  square  mile  of  the  basin ; or,  in 
other  words,  each  square  mile,  taking  the  average  for  the  entire  area 
drained,  contributed  a constant  supply  of  the  given  number  of  second- 
feet. 


1 Eleventh  Annual  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Part  ir,  Irrigation,  pp.  93-106. 

345 


346 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS, 


IFest  Gallatin  River,  near  Bozeman,  Montana. 

[Drainage  area,  850  square  miles.] 


Month. 

Discharge. 

Total  for 
month. 

Kun-off. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Depth . 

Per  sq.m. 

1889. 

Secondft. 

Secondft. 

Secondft . 

Acre  ft. 

Inches, 

Secondft. 

August  16  to  31 

437 

402 

426 

26,  200 

0-58 

050 

September 

640 

402 

450 

24,  550 

•54 

•53 

October 

437 

367 

402 

24,  700 

•54 

•47 

*400 

23, 800 

*52 

•47 

*400 

24,  600 

•54 

•47 

1890. 

*320 

19  680 

*43 

•38 

*320 

17  760 

•39 

•38 

March  23  to  31 

320 

320 

320 

19,  680 

•43 

•38 

April 

1,255 

280 

460 

27,  400 

•60 

•54 

May 

3, 195 

1,300 

2,092 

128,  600 

2-84 

2-46 

June 

3,  800 

2,060 

2,641 

157.  300 

347 

311 

July 

2, 165 

890 

1,388 

85,  362 

1-88 

1-63 

August 

890 

570 

761 

46,  800 

1-03 

•89 

September 

690 

570 

607 

36, 100 

•80 

•72 

October 

650 

570 

591 

36,  400 

•80 

•70 

November 

570 

430 

506 

30, 100 

■66 

•60 

*450 

27,  650 

•61 

•54 

1891. 

400 

24,  600 

•54 

*47 

400 

22,  200 

•47 

•47 

450 

27  675 

•61 

•53 

500 

29,  750 

•65 

•59 

May 

2,535 

1,390 

1,897 

116,  665 

2-57 

2'23 

June 

2,  975 

1,615 

2,  516 

149,  702 

3-30 

2-95 

Estimate. 


Madison  River  at  Red  Bluff,  Montana. 


[Drainage  area,  2,085  square  miles.] 


1890. 

Secondft. 

Secondft. 

Secondft. 

Acreft. 

Inches. 

Secondft. 

*1, 200 

73,  800 

0*66 

0-58 

*1,200 

66,  600 

•60 

*58 

*1,  200 

73,’  800 

•66 

•58 

April  4 to  30 

2,  580 

1,370 

1620 

96|  390 

•87 

•78 

May 

6, 420 

3, 060 

4,  823 

296,  600 

2-67 

2-32 

June 

6, 360 

3, 780 

4,  977 

296, 131 

2-66 

238 

July 

3,660 

1,715 

2,  518 

154,  800 

1-39 

1-21 

August 

1,  640 

1,375 

1,535 

94,  400 

•85 

-74 

September 

1,580 

1,420 

1,466 

86,  300 

•78 

•70 

October 

1,520 

1,420 

1,498 

92,  300 

•83 

•72 

November 

1,470 

1,285 

1,380 

82,  150 

•74 

•66 

December  

1,  520 

1,285 

1,  400 

86, 150 

•77 

•67 

1891. 

J anuary 

1,580 

1,240 

1,406 

86,  469 

•78 

•67 

February 

1,580 

1,265 

1,436 

79,  698 

•72 

•69 

March 

1,  790 

1,470 

1,631 

100,  306 

•90 

•78 

April 

1,960 

1,  640 

1,774 

105,  530 

•95 

•85 

May 

4,260 

1,790 

3,  389 

208,  423 

1-88 

162 

June 

4,  620 

3,780 

4,  167 

247,  936 

2-20 

200 

Estimate. 


NEWELL.] 


RIVER  DISCHARGES  BY  MONTHS. 


347 


Month. 


1890. 

January  

February  

March 

April  17  to  30 

May 

June 

July 

A ugust 

September 

October 

November 

December 

1891. 

January 

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 


1889. 

August  5 to  31 

September 

October 

November 

December 

1890. 

January 

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

J uly 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 


Missouri  River  at  Craig,  Montana. 
[Drainage  area,  17,615  square  miles.] 


Discharge. 

Total  for 

Run-off. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

month. 

Depth. 

Persq.m. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Acre-ft. 

Inches. 

Second-ft. 

*3,  000 

184,  500 

•20 

•17 

*3,  000 

166,  500 

T8 

*17 

*3,  000 

184,  500 

•20 

*17 

6, 100 

3,595 

4,  662 

277,  389 

•29 

•26 

12, 500 

6,  900 

10, 472 

644,  030 

•68 

•59 

11,  900 

8, 100 

10,  074 

599,  401 

•64 

■57 

7,800 

2,614 

5,  020 

308,  730 

•33 

•28 

2,  505 

. 1,960 

2,  216 

136,  284 

T5 

T3 

2,  396 

1,960 

2,  232 

132, 700 

T4 

•13 

2,  722 

1,  742 

2,  379 

146,  000 

T6 

T3 

3,159 

2,  723 

2,  868 

170,  800 

T8 

TO 

3,  159 

1,742 

2,  763 

170,  000 

T8 

•16 

3,  823 

1,742 

2,  967 

184, 270 

T9 

T7 

*3,  500 

215,  250 

•24 

•20 

*4,  000 

246,  000 

•26 

•23 

9, 130 

4,  570 

5, 794 

344, 743 

•37 

•32 

12,  050 

7,  150 

9,015 

554,  422 

•59 

•51 

16,  355 

11,  000 

13,  645 

811,877 

•85 

•77 

* Estimate. 


Sun  River  above  Augusta,  Montana. 

[Drainage  area,  1,175  square  miles.] 


221 

200 

213 

13, 100 

•21 

•18 

260 

200 

214 

12,  720 

•20 

•18 

200 

200 

200 

12,  300 

•20 

•17 

200 

180 

191 

11, 360 

•18 

•16 

*175 

10,  760 

•17 

•15 

*175 

10,  760 

•17 

*15 

*175 

9,  712 

•15 

•15 

*175 

10!  760 

*17 

*15 

1,580 

160 

371 

22,  050 

•35 

•31 

4,  085 

1,990 

2,  804 

172,  500 

2-75 

2-38 

4,  000 

1,  850 

2,  342 

139,  500 

2-23 

1-99 

2,  440 

450 

961 

59,  100 

■94 

•81 

480 

315 

371 

22,  800 

•36 

T9 

365 

260 

304 

18,  090 

•29 

•26 

480 

240 

315 

19,  395 

•31 

•27 

390 

275 

322 

19, 160 

•31 

•28 

340 

240 

267 

16,  430 

•26 

•23 

* Estimate. 


Y ellowstone  River  at  Horr,  Montana. 
[Drainage  area,  2,700  square  miles.] 


1889. 

August  12  to  31 

1,853 

1,411 

1,  660 

102,  090 

•71 

•62 

September 

1,653 

1, 126 

1,270 

75,  570 

•52 

•47 

October 

1, 126 

841 

976 

60,  000 

•42 

•36 

November 

841 

651 

743 

44, 200 

•31 

•27 

*G50 

39,  975 

•28 

*24 

1890. 

*550 

33,  825 

•23 

•25 

*550 

30,  525 

•21 

•25 

March  21  to  31 

620 

560 

585 

35,  977 

•25 

•22 

April 

4,  495 

510 

1, 417 

84,  250 

•59 

•53 

May 

11,915 

5,  090 

7,  522 

466,  500 

3-24 

2-79 

June 

11,915 

8,  720 

10, 082 

603,  000 

419 

3’74 

J uly 

9,410 

5,  760 

7, 682 

473,  000 

3-28 

2-84 

August 

5,  600 

3, 145 

4, 375 

269,  000 

1-87 

1-62 

September 

3,145 

1,670 

2,  276 

135,  200 

•94 

•84 

October 

1,920 

1 160 

1,473 

90,  600 

•63 

•55 

November 

1, 160 

850 

970 

57,  750 

•40 

•36 

December 

815 

590 

95 

42,  742 

•30 

•26 

1891. 

January 

590 

470 

488 

30,  012 

•21 

T8 

*500 

27,  750 

*19 

*18 

March  .1 

360 

285 

316 

19j  434 

•13 

•12 

April 

2,  720 

360 

1,082 

64,  379 

•45 

•40 

May 

7, 480 

1,855 

5,  227 

321,460 

224 

1-93 

June 

8,  975 

6,  685 

7,  592 

451,  724 

3T3 

2-81 

Estimate. 


348 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS, 


Cache  la  Poudre  Creelc  above  Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 


[Drainage  area,  1,060  square  miles.] 


• 

Month. 

Discharge. 

Total  for 
month. 

Run-off. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Depth. 

Per  sq.  m. 

1884. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Acre-ft. 

Inches. 

Second-ft. 

March  15  to  31 

92 

48 

67 

4,  i20 

•07 

•06 

April 

707 

64 

219 

13,  030 

•23 

•21 

May 

4,610 

453 

2,537 

156,  025 

2-77 

2-39 

June 

5,011 

3,  473 

4,  812 

280,  314 

5-08 

4-54 

July 

3,  970 

862 

2,  144 

131,856 

2-33 

2-03 

August. 

1.231 

423 

792 

48,  708 

•86 

•75 

September 

446 

230 

305 

18, 147 

•32 

•29 

October  1 to  16 

224 

195 

205 

12,  607 

•22 

19 

1885. 

April  4 to  30 

822 

241 

447 

26,  596 

•47 

■42 

May 

1,592 

954 

1,419 

87,  268 

1-55 

1 34 

J une 

3,857 

2.  235 

2,  910 

173,  145 

3-07 

275 

July 

3, 186 

1,076 

3, 186 

195,  939 

3-46 

301 

August 

1. 116 

369 

656 

40,  344 

•71 

•62 

September 

386 

214 

272 

16, 184 

■29 

•25 

October  1 to  10 

210 

202 

203 

12,  484 

•22 

•19 

1886. 

April  27  to  30 

446 

369 

405 

24,  097 

•43 

•38 

May 

2,  659 

404 

1,  309 

80,  403 

1-42 

1-23 

June  

2,  584 

1,247 

1,876 

111,622 

1-97 

1-77 

J uly 

1,  175 

392 

717 

44,  095 

.78 

•68 

August 

1,  475 

232 

338 

20,  787 

•37 

•33 

September 

284 

115 

185 

11,007 

■19 

17 

October 

133 

120 

129 

7,  933 

■14 

12 

1887. 

May  18  to  29 

2,  380 

1, 150 

1,822 

112,  053 

1-99 

1-72 

June  14  to  30 

1,970 

1,050 

1,401 

83,  360 

1-47 

1-32 

J uly 

1,260 

410 

735 

45,  202 

•80 

•69 

August 

430 

240 

307 

18,  880 

•33 

■29 

September 

300 

110 

175 

10,  412 

•18 

•17 

1888. 

April 

350 

100 

181 

10,  769 

•19 

•17 

May 

790 

250 

483 

29,  704 

•53 

■46 

June 

1,490 

680 

1,113 

66,  223 

117 

105 

J uly 

690 

260 

420 

25,  830 

•46 

•40 

August 

500 

140 

213 

13. 100 

•23 

■20 

September 

180 

70 

109 

6,  485 

•11 

■10 

1889. 

January 

342 

71 

151 

9,  280 

16 

■14 

February 

198 

69 

106 

5,  880 

10 

•10 

March 

125 

41 

46 

2 830 

•05 

■04 

April 

342 

48 

113 

6,  730 

•12 

11 

May 

1,886 

215 

649 

39,  900 

•71 

•61 

June 

1.960 

837 

1,338 

79,  500 

1-41 

1-26 

July 

844 

271 

514 

31,  600 

.56 

•48 

August 

455 

67 

187 

11,  500 

•20 

•18 

September 

75 

56 

67 

3,  990 

•07 

06 

October 

92 

55 

69 

4,240 

•08 

•06 

November 

122 

46 

88 

5,240 

■09 

•08 

December 

89 

33 

64 

3,940 

■07 

06 

1890. 

January 

101 

46 

82 

5,  043 

•09 

•08 

February  

138 

37 

79 

4,384 

•08 

•08 

March 

126 

47 

85 

5,  227 

•09 

•08 

April 

481 

71 

200 

11,900 

•21 

•19 

May 

1,710 

436 

1,044 

64,  206 

1-13 

•99 

Juue 

1,804 

1,016 

1,280 

76, 158 

1-35 

1-21 

July 

1,025 

336 

649 

39,  950 

•71 

■61 

August 

404 

150 

287 

17,  650 

■31 

•27 

September 

183 

58 

103 

6,130 

•11 

■10 

October 

118 

55 

80 

4,925 

09 

•08 

November 

89 

41 

61 

3,  630 

•07 

•06 

70 

4,  305 

■08 

•07 

1891. 

* 

January  

150 

49 

95 

5,  842 

■10 

•09 

February  

138 

55 

75 

4, 162 

07 

•07 

March  

73 

42 

61 

3,  751 

07 

06 

April  

416 

48 

154 

9, 163 

16 

14 

May  

2,  080 

416 

1,162 

71.  463 

1-26 

110 

NEWELL.] 


RIVER  DISCHARGES  BY  MONTHS. 


349 


Arkansas  River  at  Canyon  City,  Colorado. 


[Drainage  area,  3,060  square  miles.] 


Month. 

Discharge. 

Total  for 
mouth. 

Run-ofl'. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Depth. 

Per  sq.m. 

1888. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Acre-ft. 

Inches. 

Second-ft. 

*400 

24, 600 

15 

•13 

February 

"500 

27,  750 

•17 

•16 

*600 

36,  900 

•22 

•20 

*1, 000 

59,  500 

•36 

*33 

May 

1,570 

1,280 

li  440 

88,  500 

•54 

•47 

Juiie 

2, 760 

1, 120 

2,090 

124,  300 

■76 

•68 

July 

1,870 

850 

1,350 

83,  000 

•51 

•44 

August 

1,100 

800 

932 

57,  300 

•35 

•30 

September 

850 

430 

605 

36,  000 

•22 

•20 

; 500 

30,  750 

T9 

T6 

*500 

29’  750 

•18 

T6 

*400 

24,  600 

•15 

T3 

1889. 

*300 

18,  450 

•11 

TO 

*300 

16,  620 

TO 

TO 

*300 

18,  450 

•11 

TO 

April  17  to  31 

438 

214 

300 

17,  850 

•ii 

TO 

May 

1,960 

324 

600 

36,  900 

■23 

•20 

J une 

2,010 

1,002 

1,374 

81,  753 

•50 

*45 

July 

1. 150 

290 

602 

37,  023 

•23 

•20 

August 

2,  620 

243 

340 

20,  910 

•13 

Tl 

September 

258 

190 

220 

13,  090 

•08 

•07 

October 

284 

190 

223 

13,715 

•08 

•07 

November 

335 

243 

299 

17,  790 

T1 

TO 

December 

438 

274 

335 

20,  602 

•13 

Tl 

1890. 

January 

494 

18o 

310 

19,  065 

•12 

TO 

February 

446 

250 

363 

20, 146 

•12 

•12 

March 

391 

180 

320 

19,  683 

•12 

TO 

April 

980 

200 

477 

28,  381 

•17 

T6 

May 

3,  270 

841 

2,  090 

128,  535 

•79 

•68 

June 

3,260 

2,  068 

2,611 

155,  354 

•95 

•85 

July 

2, 132 

920 

1,571 

96,  616 

•59 

•51 

August 

1,425 

580 

670 

41,  205 

•25 

•22 

September 

625 

455 

519 

30,  850 

•19 

•17 

October 

605 

505 

531 

32,  650 

■20 

•17 

November 

555 

480 

522 

31,060 

•19 

T7 

December  

580 

455 

502 

30, 900 

T9 

TO 

1891. 

January 

505 

325 

431 

26,  506 

16 

•14 

February  

580 

365 

474 

26,  307 

T6 

T5 

March 

685 

530 

586 

36, 039 

•22 

•19 

April 

1,  600 

580 

857 

50, 992 

•31 

•28 

May 

3,  370 

1,340 

2,012 

123,  738 

. -76 

•66 

June  

4,  230 

1,600 

3,  291 

195,  814 

1-20 

1-07 

Bio  Grande  at  Del  Norte , Colorado. 

[Drainage  area,  1,400  square  miles.] 


1889. 

October  11  to  31 

November 

December 

1890. 

January 

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

1891. 

January 

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 


345 

214 

278 

17,  097 

•23 

•20 

364 

290 

319 

18,  980 

•25 

•23 

364 

200 

281 

17, 281 

•23 

•20 

1,000 

326 

552 

33,  948 

■45 

■39 

896 

745 

796 

44, 178 

•59 

•57 

842 

404 

487 

29,  950 

•40 

•35 

1,380 

404 

913 

54,  323 

•73 

•65 

5,  930 

1,990 

4,  331 

266,  356 

357 

3-09 

5,  555 

2,  550 

3,807 

226,  516 

3-03 

2-72 

2,  260 

862 

1,515 

93, 172 

1-25 

1-08 

930 

450 

612 

37,  638 

•50 

•44 

450 

326 

383 

22,  800 

•31 

•27 

862 

307 

470 

28,  900 

•39 

•34 

610 

345 

478 

28,  500 

•38 

•34 

670 

475 

565 

34,  750 

•46 

•40 

1,320 

670 

990 

60,  885 

•81 

•71 

1,410 

1,  193 

1,294 

71,  817 

•96 

•92 

1,460 

930 

1,280 

78, 720 

1-05 

•91 

3,160 

796 

1,410 

83,  895 

1T2 

1-01 

5,650 

1,  860 

3,  285 

202,  027 

2-70 

2-34 

5,  555 

2,190 

4, 146 

246,  687 

3-31 

2-96 

350 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


Rio  Grande  at  Embudo,  New  Mexico. 


[Drainage  area,  7,000  square  miles.] 


Month. 

Discharge. 

Total  for 

Run-off. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

month. 

Depth. 

Per  sq.  m. 

1889. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Acre  ft. 

Inches. 

Second-ft. 

January 

495 

379 

431 

26,  506 

•07 

•06 

February  

576 

420 

473 

26,  251 

•07 

•07 

March 

1,042 

537 

784 

48,216 

13 

•11 

April 

4,420 

970 

2,  261 

134,  530 

•36 

•32 

May 

5,075 

2,  443 

3,430 

210,  945 

•56 

•49 

June 

5,  660 

1,390 

2,  922 

173,  859 

•47 

•42 

July 

1, 105 

230 

471 

28,  966 

■07 

■07 

August 

253 

181 

206 

12,  669 

•03 

•03 

September 

264 

184 

212 

12,  614 

■03 

•03 

October 

324 

243 

283 

17,  404 

■05 

•04 

November 

507 

253 

366 

21,  777 

•06 

•05 

December 

1890. 

610 

364 

542 

33, 333 

09 

•08 

January  

617 

260 

437 

26,  875 

•07 

■07 

February  

670 

344 

553 

30,  691 

•08 

•08 

March 

1,044 

330 

682 

41,  943 

'll 

TO 

April 

3,  220 

842 

2,  083 

123, 938 

■33 

•30 

May 

6,  071 

2,  060 

4,960 

305,  040 

•82 

•71 

June 

5,  740 

2,  768 

4, 107 

244,  306 

•65 

•59 

July 

2,640 

920 

1,593 

97,  969 

•26 

•23 

August 

1, 134 

636 

814 

50,  061 

T3 

T2 

September 

1,044 

496 

545 

32,  400 

•09 

■08 

October 

606 

523 

562 

34,  600 

•09 

•08 

November 

699 

550 

616 

36,  650 

TO 

•09 

December 

1891. 

660 

636 

648 

39,  850 

T1 

•09 

January  

666 

550 

586 

36,  039 

TO 

■08 

Febiuary  

1,  000 

550 

616 

34, 182 

•09 

•09 

March 

1,450 

735 

917 

56,  395 

T6 

•13 

April 

5,  690 

735 

2,  370 

141, 015 

•38 

•34 

May 

8,550 

4,520 

5,  965 

306,  847 

•98 

•85 

June 

6,  340 

4,  325 

5,  040 

299,  880 

■80 

•72 

Rio  Grande' at  El  Paso,  Texas. 

[Drainage  area,  30,000  square  miles]. 


May  10  to  31 

June 

July 

August 

September . . 

October 

November  . . 
December... 


1889. 


4,  705  2, 060 

4, 460  660 

930  


252 


3, 116 
2,  638 
237 
0 
0 
0 
0 

71 


191? 634 
156,  961 
14.  575 
0 
0 
0 
0 

4,366 


•120 

•098 

•009 

0 

0 

0 

0 

•003 


•104 

•090 

•007 

0 

0 

0 

0 

•002 


1890. 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 


280 
458 
1, 140 
4,108 
7,  200 
7,200 
2,  355 
2,497 
660 
616 
610 
610 


126 
108 
45 
470 
3, 495 
2,  925 
235 
170 
40 
40 
40 
430 


196 
290 
424 
2, 190 
5,  771 
4,404 
854 
734 
176 
65 
284 
535 


12, 054 
16,  095 
26,  076 
130,  305 
354,  916 
262,  038 
52,  521 
45, 141 
10, 470 
4,  000 
16,  950 
32,  900 


•008 

•010 

•016 

•081 

•221 

•164 

•033 

•028 

•006 

•003 

•011 

■020 


•007 

•010 

•014 

•073 

•190 

•147 

•028 

•024 

•006 

•002 

•009 

■018 


1891. 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 


715 
2,  640 
4,  635 
8,625 
16,  620 
8,  340 


140 

470 

470 

1,040 

8,340 

5,045 


451 
809 
1,866 
4,  265 
11,  852 
6,  714 


27,  736 
44,  899 
114.759 
253,  767 
726,  528 
399,  483 


•017 

•028 

•072 

159 

•454 

•249 


■015 

•027 

•062 

•142 

•396 

•224 


NEWELL.] 


RIVER  DISCHARGES  BY  MONTHS. 


351 


Truckee  River  at  Vista,  Nevada. 


[Drainage  area,  1,519  square  miles.] 


Month. 

Discharge. 

Total  for 
month. 

Runoff. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Depth. 

Per  sq.  m. 

1890. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Acre-ft. 

Inches. 

Second-ft. 

April  20  to  30 

5.  610 

3. 730 

4,  496 

267,  512 

3-30 

2-96 

May 

7,510 

3,  200 

5,  990 

368,  385 

4-55 

3-94 

June 

6,  710 

3, 115 

4, 162 

247, 639 

306 

2-74 

July 

3,  730 

1,185 

2, 198 

135, 177 

1-67 

1-45 

August 

1, 152 

750 

952 

58,  548 

•72 

•63 

September 

825 

570 

682 

40,  579 

•50 

*45 

October 

1,030 

490 

742 

45.  633 

•56 

•49 

November 

825 

400 

765 

45,  517 

•56 

•50 

*750 

46, 125 

•57 

*49 

1891. 

*700 

43,  050 

•46 

February 

*650 

36,  075 

■44 

•43 

*650 

39,  975 

*50 

•43 

April 

3, 115 

570 

1,523 

90,  618 

112 

1-00 

May 

3,  285 

1,990 

2,  765 

170,  047 

2-10 

1-79 

Juiie 

2,  730 

1,  280 

1,905 

113,  347 

1-39 

1-25 

* Estimate. 


East  Carson  River  at  Rodenbahs,  Nevada. 


[Drainage  area,  414  square  miles.] 


1890. 

April  7 to  30 

1,565 

752 

1,026 

61,  047 

2-76 

2-48 

May  4 to  31 

4,260 

1,315 

2,  654 

163,  221 

7'38 

641 

June 

3.  900 

1,745 

2,  430 

144, 585 

6-55 

5-87 

J uly 

2,  780 

750 

1,789 

110, 000 

4-98 

4-32 

August 

875 

437 

597 

36,  750 

1-66 

1-44 

September 

437 

400 

415 

24,  700 

1-12 

1-00 

October  

390 

385 

386 

23,  740 

1-07 

•93 

November 

385 

380 

384 

22,  850 

1-04 

•93 

December 

400 

375 

379 

23,  300 

1-06 

•92 

1891. 

January 

395 

385 

388 

23,  862 

1-08 

•94 

February  

715 

377 

402 

22,  311 

101 

•97 

March 

1,650 

390 

783 

48, 154 

2-18 

1-89 

April 

590 

410 

452 

26.  894 

1-22 

1-09 

May 

1,884 

1,010 

1,445 

88,  867 

4-02 

349 

June 

1,884 

565 

1,328 

79,016 

3-58 

3-12 

West  Carson  River  at  Woodford,  California. 

[Drainage  area,  70  square  miles.] 


1890. 

April  9 to  30 

448 

145 

284 

16,  898 

4'56 

4-06 

May 

924 

318 

657 

40,  405 

10-83 

940 

June 

1.  284 

448 

614 

36,  533 

9-79 

8-77 

July 

606 

252 

380 

23,  370 

6-27 

5-43 

August 

240 

90 

135 

8, 300 

223 

1-93 

September 

86 

70 

75 

4,  080 

1-09 

1-07 

October 

78 

54 

67 

4, 120 

1-10 

•96 

November 

58 

46 

49 

2,915 

■78 

■70 

December 

58 

42 

53 

3,  261 

•87 

•76 

1891. 

J anuary 

62 

46 

52 

3,198 

■86 

•74 

February  

58 

42 

48 

2.604 

•71 

•69 

March 

68 

50 

61 

3,  758 

1-01 

■87 

April 

384 

62 

127 

7.  556 

2-02 

1-82 

May 

740 

300 

534 

32,  820 

8-79 

7-62 

June 

456 

260 

338 

20,  111 

5-38 

4-83 

352 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS, 


Bear  River  at  Battle  Creek,  Idaho. 


[Drainage  area,  4,500  square  miles.] 


Month. 

Discharge. 

Total  for 
month. 

Run-off. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Depth. 

Persq.  m. 

1889. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Acre-ft. 

Inches. 

Second-ft. 

October  11  to  31 

430 

300 

355 

21,  832 

■09 

•07 

November 

830 

430 

487 

28,  976 

•12 

•11 

December 

735 

350 

565 

34,  747 

•14 

•13 

1890. 

January  

1,  255 

270 

875 

53,  812 

•22 

•19 

February  

2,  040 

600 

809 

4,490 

•18 

■18 

March 

2,  040 

780 

1,271 

78, 166 

•32 

•28 

April 

3,  960 

2, 170 

2,  978 

177, 191 

•74 

•66 

May 

5,980 

3,  960 

5, 199 

319,  738 

1-33 

1-60 

June 

5,  980 

2,  300 

4,074 

245,  000 

1-02 

•91 

July - 

2,170 

1,200 

1,582 

97,  293 

•40 

•35 

August 

1,200 

880 

1,000 

61,  500 

•26 

•22 

September 

880 

780 

843 

50, 150 

•21 

•19 

October 

880 

780 

854 

52,  500 

•22 

•19 

N ovember 

880 

780 

783 

46,  600 

•19 

•17 

December 

780 

690 

748 

46,  000 

•19 

•17 

1891. 

January  

690 

690 

690 

42,  435 

•18 

•15 

February  

780 

43, 290 

•18 

•17 

March 

880 

780 

790 

48,  585 

•20 

•17 

April 

2,  950 

780 

1,623 

96,  509 

•40 

•36 

May 

3,  030 

2,  440 

2,652 

163, 098 

■68 

*59 

June 

2,  870 

1,660 

2,  245 

133,  578 

•56 

•50 

Bear  River  at  Collinston,  Utah. 


[Drainage  area,  6,000  square  miles.] 


June 

July  24  to  31 

August 

September  . . 

October 

November  . . 
December. . . 


January 

February  

March  2 to  31 

April 

May 

J une 

July 

August 

September  . . . 

October 

November  ... 
December 


January 

February  . . . 

March 

April  1 to  11 

May 

June 


*800 

47,  600 

•15 

•13 

385 

340 

362 

22,  263 

•07 

•06 

450 

385 

417 

25,  645 

•08 

•07 

610 

450 

509 

30,  285 

•09 

•08 

825 

610 

728 

44, 772 

■14 

•12 

1,000 

780 

848 

50,  456 

16 

•14 

1,  925 

955 

1,395 

85,  792 

•27 

•23 

*1,  500 

92,  250 

•29 

•25 

*1, 000 

55,  500 

•17 

•17 

4,  850 

1, 100 

3, 188 

196,  062 

•61 

•53 

6,  680 

3,600 

4,953 

294, 703 

•92 

•83 

8,  220 

6,  890 

7,  924 

487,  326 

1-52 

1-32 

7,  940 

4,440 

6,  234 

270,  923 

116 

1-04 

4,230 

2,  060 

3,250 

199,  875 

•62 

•54 

2,  060 

1,545 

1,754 

107,  871 

•34 

•29 

1,425 

1,310 

1,3*4 

80,  050 

•25 

•22 

1,665 

1,  365 

1,544 

95,  000 

■30 

•26 

1,425 

1,365 

1,403 

83,  5d0 

•26 

•23 

1,545 

1,  000 

1,243 

76,  500 

•24 

•20 

1,  000 

61,  500 

T9 

•17 

2,200 

825 

li  308 

72,  594 

•22 

•22 

2,  340 

1,425 

1,766 

108,  710 

•34 

•29 

5,000 

1,665 

2,  729 

162,  375 

•51 

•45 

5,000 

4 020 

4,569 

280,  993 

•88 

•76 

4,  720 

2,  480 

3,595 

213, 902 

•67 

•60 

Estimate. 


NEWELL.] 


RIVER  DISCHARGES  BY  MONTHS. 


353 


Oqden  River  at  Powder  Mills,  Utah. 

[Drainage  area,  360  square  miles.] 


Month. 

Discharge. 

Total  for 

Run-off. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

month. 

Depth. 

Per  sq.  m. 

1889. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Acre-ft. 

Inches. 

Second  ft. 

August  9 to  31 

60 

40 

50 

3,075 

•16 

T4 

September 

70 

50 

52 

3,094 

•16 

T4 

October 

145 

70 

89 

5,  473 

•28 

•24 

November 

253 

60 

105 

6,  247 

•33 

•29 

December 

735 

145 

421 

25.  891 

1-35 

117 

1890. 

January 

510 

289 

382 

23,  493 

1-22 

106 

February  

1,364 

399 

680 

37, 740 

1-97 

1-89 

March 

1,401 

362 

978 

60, 147 

3-13 

2-72 

April 

1,919 

1,068 

1,449 

86,  215 

4-49 

4'02 

May 

2, 178 

1,475 

1,818 

111,807 

5'82 

505 

J une 

1,438 

624 

910 

54,  145 

2-82 

253 

J uly 

624 

326 

458 

28, 167 

1-47 

1-27 

August 

473 

215 

312 

19, 188 

1-00 

•86 

September 

235 

195 

206 

12,  260 

•64 

•57 

October 

326 

215 

265 

16,  290 

•85 

•74 

November 

267 

235 

255 

15,180 

•79 

•71 

December 

*240 

14,  760 

•77 

•67 

* Estimate. 


Weber  River  in  canyon  above  Uinta,  Utah. 


[Drainage  area,  1,600  square  miles.] 


1889. 

October  13-31 

290 

130 

181 

11,131 

T3 

■11 

November 

290 

160 

208 

12,  376 

T4 

T2 

December 

815 

200 

430 

20,  445 

•31 

•27 

1890. 

J anuary 

815 

290 

457 

28, 105 

•33 

■29 

February  

1,400 

200 

547 

30,  358 

•36 

•34 

March 

2, 130 

200 

1,091 

67,  096 

■79 

•68 

April 

4,280 

970 

2,  184 

129, 948 

1-52 

1-36 

May 

5,465 

3,470 

4,  528 

278,  472 

3-26 

283 

J une 

3,  635 

1,220 

2,  017 

120,011 

1-41 

1-27 

July 

1,220 

290 

549 

33,  763 

■40 

•34 

August 

450 

200 

280 

17,  220 

•20 

T8 

September 

290 

240 

265 

15,  750 

T8 

•17 

October 

450 

200 

331 

19,  850 

•22 

•21 

November 

340 

290 

298 

17,720 

•21 

T9 

December 

340 

240 

290 

17,  830 

•21 

T8 

1891. 

January  

450 

290 

303 

18, 634 

•23 

T9 

February  

1,220 

290 

461 

25,  586 

•30 

•29 

March 

1,220 

450 

025 

38,  437 

•45 

•39 

April 

2,420 

520 

1,502 

89,  369 

1-05 

■94 

May 

4,  655 

1,940 

2,  752 

169,  250 

1-98 

1-72 

June 

2,  225 

1, 135 

1,621 

96,  449 

1T3 

101 

-23 


12  GEOL..  PT.  2- 


354 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS, 


Provo  Eiver  above  Provo , Utah. 

[Drainage  area,  640  square  miles.] 


Month. 

Discharge. 

Total  for 
month. 

Run- off. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Depth. 

Persq.  m. 

1889. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Acreft. 

Inches. 

Second-ft. 

July  27  31 

150 

149 

150 

9,  225 

•27 

•23 

August 

149 

144 

145 

8,917 

•26 

•23 

September 

174 

144 

150 

8,925 

•26 

•23 

October 

200 

174 

180 

11,  070 

■32 

•28 

November 

280 

200 

224 

13,  328 

-39 

-35 

December 

630 

240 

384 

23,  616 

•69 

•60 

1890. 

January ; 

700 

200 

305 

18,  751 

•55 

•48 

February 

564 

280 

377 

20,  923 

•61 

-59 

March 

700 

240 

519 

31, 990 

•94 

-81 

April 

1,240 

500 

840 

49,  980 

1-46 

1-32 

May 

2, 180 

1,316 

1,  926 

118,  450 

347 

301 

June 

2,  260 

440 

1.184 

70,  448 

2-06 

1-85 

July 

440 

280 

314 

19,311 

■56 

49 

August 

280 

240 

252 

15,  498 

•45 

-39 

September 

280 

240 

244 

14,  520 

•43 

•38 

October 

330 

280 

304 

18,  700 

•55 

•48 

November 

330 

280 

303 

18,  020 

•53 

-47 

December 

330 

240 

293 

18,  020 

•53 

•46 

1891. 

January 

280 

240 

255 

15,  682 

•46 

•40 

February 

500 

280 

311 

17,  240 

•50 

•48 

March 

1,316 

280 

492 

30,  258 

•89 

•77 

April 

930 

280 

478 

28,  430 

•83 

•75 

May 

1,  704 

851 

1,226 

75,  399 

2-21 

1-92 

June 

1,470 

851 

1,190 

70,  805 

2-07 

1-86 

Spanish  Fork  in  canyon , Utah. 


[Drainage  area,  670  square  miles.] 


1889. 

September 

70 

45 

50 

2,  975 

•08 

•07 

October 

70 

50 

62 

3,  813 

11 

■09 

November 

70 

45 

63 

3,153 

•09 

•08 

December 

70 

50 

67 

4,120 

12 

•10 

1890. 

January  

230 

50 

68 

4, 182 

■12 

•10 

February 

95 

50 

76 

4,  218 

•12 

-11 

March 

355 

50 

143 

8,  794 

■25 

•21 

April 

770 

150 

387 

23,  026 

•64 

•58 

May 

1,040 

355 

777 

47,  785 

1-34 

1-15 

June 

355 

110 

205 

12, 197 

•34 

•31 

July 

590 

82 

114 

7,  011 

•20 

■17 

August 

82 

50 

64 

3,  837 

11 

•10 

September 

95 

50 

63 

3,  750 

•10 

•09 

October 

95 

50 

64 

3,  938 

11 

•10 

November 

50 

50 

50 

2,  975 

•08 

•07 

December 

50 

50 

50 

3.  075 

•09 

•07 

NEWELL.] 


RIVER  DISCHARGES  BY  MONTHS. 


355 


Sevier  Fiver  at  Leamington,  Utah. 


[Drainage  area,  5,595  square  miles.] 


Month. 

Discharge 

Total  for 

Run-off. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

mouth. 

Depth. 

Fersq.  m. 

1889. 

Second -ft. 

Second-ft. 

Second -ft. 

Acre-ft. 

Inches. 

Second-ft. 

August  23  to  31 

60 

40 

48 

2, 952 

•01 

•008 

September 

80 

48 

53 

3,153 

■01 

•009 

October 

160 

48 

111 

6,  826 

•02 

•019 

November 

444 

210 

274 

16,  303 

•05 

•049 

December 

1890. 

526 

280 

395 

24,  292 

•08 

•071 

January 

1,058 

280 

625 

38,  437 

•13 

T1 

February  

1,140 

567 

713 

39.  571 

13 

13 

March 

690 

567 

630 

38,745 

T3 

T1 

April 

976 

608 

726 

43, 197 

14 

T3 

May 

2,  329 

976 

1,  705 

104, 857 

•35 

•31 

June 

2,  206 

649 

1,250 

74,  375 

■25 

•22 

J uly 

649 

185 

346 

21,  279 

•07 

•06 

August 

185 

150 

153 

9.409 

■03 

•03 

September 

185 

150 

157 

8,  345 

•03 

•03 

October 

362 

185 

310 

19,  050 

06 

•06 

November 

403 

321 

373 

22, 100 

•07 

•07 

December 

1891. 

649 

403 

509 

31,  320 

1-05 

•09 

January 

772 

649 

735 

45,  202 

15 

13 

February  

772 

772 

772 

42, 846 

. T4 

14 

March 

772 

526 

618 

38,  007 

13 

11 

April 

608 

526 

503 

29,  928 

■10 

•09 

May 

1,386 

608 

1, 114 

68,511 

•23 

•20 

June 

1,140 

567 

952 

56,  644 

T9 

T7 

Henry  Fork  in  canyon,  Idaho. 

[Drainage  area,  931  square  miles.] 


1890. 

-1,200 

738,  000 

1-49 

1-29 

February  

*1,250 

69,  375 

1-40 

1-35 

*1,  300 

79,  950 

1-61 

1-40 

April  6 to  30 

4,  920 

1, 120 

1,  875 

111'  562 

2-25 

2-01 

May 

7,710 

2,  750 

4,580 

281,  670 

5-67 

4-92 

J une 

2,  890 

1,860 

2,  270 

135,  065 

2-72 

244 

1,860 

1,450 

1,550 

95,  325 

1-92 

1*66 

August 

1,450 

1,450 

1,450 

89, 175 

1-80 

1-56 

September 

1,450 

1,280 

1,314 

78, 183 

1-57 

1-41 

October 

1,280 

1,  280 

1,280 

78,  720 

1-59 

1-38 

November 

1,280 

1,280 

1,280 

76, 150 

1-55 

1-37 

December 

1,  280 

1,280 

1,280 

78,  720 

1-59 

1-38 

1891. 

January  

1,280 

1,280 

1,280 

78,  720 

1-59 

1-38 

February  

1,280 

1,280 

1,280 

71,  040 

1-43 

1-38 

March 

1,280 

1,280 

1,280 

78,  720 

1-59 

1-38 

April 

2,  600 

1,280 

1,  516 

90,  505 

1-83 

1-63 

May 

3,  180 

1,  640 

2, 184 

134,  316 

2-71 

233 

June 

2,  215 

1,450 

1,801 

107, 160 

2T6 

1 94 

Estimate. 


356 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


Falls  River  in  canyon , Idaho. 


[Drainage  area,  594  square  miles.] 


Month. 

Discharge. 

Total  for 
month. 

Run-off. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Depth. 

Per  sq.  m. 

1890. 

Second -ft. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Acre-ft. 

Inches. 

Second-ft. 

April  25  to  30 

2, 480 

1,250 

1,730 

102, 935 

3-25 

2-92 

May 

4,440 

2,  630 

3,  342 

205,  533 

6-49 

5-63 

J une 

4,  050 

2, 030 

2,706 

161,  007 

5'08 

4‘56 

July 

2,630 

1,030 

1,669 

102,  643 

3-20 

2-81 

August 

1,140 

840 

971 

59,  717 

1-82 

1-63 

September 

930 

660 

774 

46,  000 

T45 

1-30 

October 

750 

570 

660 

39,  950 

1-26 

1-09 

November 

570 

480 

541 

30,  360 

•95 

■86 

December 

480 

480 

520 

29,  520 

•93 

•81 

1891. 

January 

590 

450 

509 

31,  304 

•99 

•86 

*450 

24,  975 

•79 

•76 

*450 

27,  675 

*87 

*76 

April 

1, 140 

450 

606 

36;  057 

1*14 

102 

May 

2,  790 

1,030 

1,  765 

108,  547 

3-43 

2-98 

June 

2, 180 

1,370 

1,681 

100,  019 

3-17 

2-85 

* Estimate. 


Teton  River  at  Chase’s  ranch , Idaho. 


[Drainage  area,  967  square  miles.] 


1890. 

1,295 

4.445 

545 

740 

44,  030 
167,  895 
167, 314 
130,  995 
41,700 
27,  500 

•85 

•77 

May 

1,545 

1,925 

2,730 

3*26 

2*82 

4,  065 
2,950 
935 

2,  812 
2, 130 

3*26 

2-91 

935 

2-54 

2-20 

510 

678 

•81 

*70 

510 

450 

462 

•53 

•48 

510 

450 

475 

29,  200 

•49 

450 

450 

450 

26,  700 

•52 

•46 

510 

450 

459 

28,  200 

24,  600 
22,  807 
27,  675 
37,  485 

■55 

•47 

1891. 

*400 

•48 

*41 

475 

450 

465 

•56 

•47 

450 

450 

450 

■54 

•47 

935 

450 

630 

•72 

*65 

May 

2,360 
2,  360 

720 

1,402 

86,  223 
98,  829 

1-66 

1-45 

1,295 

i;e6i 

1-91 

1-72 

Estimate. 


NEWEIA.] 


RIVER  DISCHARGES  BY  MONTHS, 


357 


Snake  River  at  Eagle  Rock  or  Idaho  Falls,  Idaho. 

[Drainage  area,  10,100  square  miles.] 


Month. 

Discharge 

Total  for 
month. 

Run-oft. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Depth. 

Persq.  m. 

1889. 

Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Second -ft. 

Acre-ft. 

Inches. 

Second-ft. 

July 

8,646 

3. 174 

5.184 

318,816 

•59 

•51 

August 

3, 130 

2,  286 

2,  594 

159,  654 

•30 

•26 

September 

2,  508 

2,  286 

2,  300 

136,  850 

•25 

•23 

October 

2,  730 

2.  286 

2.  425 

149,  137 

•28 

•24 

November 

2,952 

2,  508 

2,  737 

162,  851 

•30 

•27 

December 

2,  730 

2, 508 

2,601 

159,  961 

•30 

•26 

1890. 

*2,  000 

123, 000 

•23 

•20 

*2, 000 

111,  000 

•21 

•20 

*2,  000 

123, 000 

*23 

*20 

April 

15,  000 

2,  900 

5;  702 

339,  269 

•63 

•57 

May 

49.  350 

16,  900 

35,606 

2,  189,  769 

4-06 

352 

June 

50,  450 

24, 930 

34,  870 

2,  074,  765 

3'85 

345 

July 

28,  800 

10,  700 

19,  970 

1,228, 155 

2-28 

1-98 

August 

10,  350 

6,  250 

7,875 

484, 312 

•90 

•79 

September 

5,  950 

4,350 

4,934 

293,  800 

•54 

•48 

October 

4,  GOO 

4,  350 

4,  552 

280,  000 

•52 

•45 

November 

4,350 

3,  900 

4,  207 

250, 000 

•47 

•42 

December 

•3,  900 

239,  850 

•45 

•39 

+ Estimate. 


Omjliee  River  at  Rigsbys,  Oregon. 


[Drainage  area,  9,875  square  miles.] 


1890. 

March  26  to  31 

7.  350 

5, 190 

6, 140 

377,  610 

•72 

•62 

April 

8,  225 

5,  395 

6,  558 

390,  201 

•74 

•66 

May 

11,230 

3, 010 

5,  913 

363,  649 

•69 

•60 

June 

2.  850 

620 

1,403 

83,  478 

■16 

•14 

July 

560 

200 

343 

21, 094 

•04 

•03 

August 

200 

170 

179 

11. 108 

•02 

•02 

September 

170 

170 

170 

10,115 

•02 

•02 

October 

170 

170 

170 

10,  455 

•02 

•02 

November 

280 

221 

221 

13. 150 

•02 

•02 

December 

360 

280 

309 

19,  004 

•04 

•03 

1891. 

January  

400 

360 

320 

22, 140 

•04 

•04 

February  

3,  265 

450 

932 

51,  726 

•10 

•09 

March 

4,  335 

2.600 

3,  313 

203,  649 

•39 

•34 

April 

10. 000 

2,  900 

4.984 

296,  548 

■56 

•51 

May 

4,600 

2.  075 

3,114 

191,511 

■36 

•31 

June 

2,150 

500 

1,267 

75,  386 

14 

13 

358 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  THE  ARID  REGIONS. 


Malheur  River  at  Vale,  Oregon. 


[Drainage  area,  9,900  square  miles.] 


Month. 

Discharge 

Total  for 

P.UI 

i-off. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

month. 

Depth. 

Per  sq.m. 

1890. 

Second-ft.'  Second-ft. 

Second-ft. 

Acre-ft. 

Inches. 

Second-ft. 

March  20  to  31 

4,  445 

1,840 

2,  912 

179,  088 

•34 

■29 

April 

3,  450 

2, 180 

2, 770 

164.815 

•31 

•28 

May 

2,  890 

590 

1.627 

100,  060 

.19 

•16 

June 

520 

120 

254 

15, 113 

•03 

•02 

J uly 

90 

25 

43 

2,  644 

•005 

•004 

August 

'25 

15 

17 

1.011 

•002 

•002 

September 

15 

15 

15 

893 

•002 

•001 

October 

62 

15 

44 

2.  705 

•005 

•004 

November 

150 

70 

118 

7,  010 

•013 

•012 

Decewbor 

1891. 

115 

62 

83 

5,105 

•009 

•008 

J anuary 

115 

70 

88 

5,  412 

•01 

■009 

February 

2,  820 

80 

319 

17,  704 

•03 

•03 

March 

1 , 460 

260 

703 

43,  234 

■08 

•07 

April 

605 

325 

511 

30, 404 

•06 

•05 

May 

325 

115 

217 

13,  345 

■03 

•02 

June 

185 

45 

78 

4,  641 

•01 

•01 

Jl'eiser  River  in  canyon,  Idaho. 


[Drainage  area,  1,670  square  miles.] 


1890. 

March  13  to  31 

11,220 
7,  060 

1,550 

5,  773 

355,  039 

3-99 

3-45 

April 

2.  470 

4,792 

285, 124 

3-20 

2-87 

May 

7,  060 

2,610 

4,882 

300,  243 

3-37 

2 92 

June  

2,  470 

1,280 

1,792 

106,  624 

1-20 

1-07 

July 

1, 130 

220 

590 

36,  285 

•41 

•35 

August 

190 

100 

138 

8,487 

•09 

•08 

September 

140 

80 

103 

6,135 

•07 

•0.’ 

October 

190 

140 

166 

10,  200 

•11 

TO 

November 

400 

160 

222 

13,  200 

*15 

.13 

December 

480 

280 

396 

24, 350 

•28 

•24 

1891. 

January 

320 

190 

292 

17, 958 

•20 

T7 

February 

1,  860 

320 

678 

37, 629 

•42 

•41 

March 

9,  300 

1,010 

2, 855 

175,  582 

1-97 

1-71 

April 

2,  220 

1,260 

1,777 

105,  731 

1-26 

1-06 

May 

1,640 

1,010 

1,331 

81,  856 

•93 

•80 

June 

1,  010 

500 

703 

41, 828 

•47 

•42 

MONTHLY  PERCENTAGES  OF  RTJN-OFF. 

The  following  table,  giving  the  relative  discharges  of  various  streams 
during  each  month  of  the  year,  has  been  prepared  for  the  purpose 
of  aiding  in  approximations  of  discharge  when  but  one  or  two  meas- 
urements are  available.  The  table  shows  the  percentage  of  the  aver- 
age discharge  for  one  month  to  the  total  for  the  year,  and  from  these 
figures,  based  on  actual  measurements,  certain  inferences  may  be 
drawn.  The  years  have  been  arbitrarily  selected,  the  period  being 
governed  largely  by  the  time  at  which  gaugings  were  begun,  and  dur- 
ing which  they  were  carried  on.  For  example,  in  the  first  instance  in 
the  year  from  August  1,  1889,  to  July  31,  1890,  the  discharge  during 
June  was  27-4  per  cent  of  the  total  discharge  of  the  year,  but  taking 
the  time  from  January  1,  1890,  to  December  31,  1890,  the  discharge  for 


NEWELL.] 


PERCENTAGES  OF  DISCHARGE  BY  MONTHS. 


361 


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